One document matched: draft-iab-link-indications-02.txt
Differences from draft-iab-link-indications-01.txt
Network Working Group B. Aboba, Ed.
INTERNET-DRAFT Internet Architecture Board
Category: Informational IAB
<draft-iab-link-indications-02.txt>
2 July 2005
Architectural Implications of Link Indications
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Copyright Notice
Copyright (C) The Internet Society (2005).
Abstract
This document describes the role of link indications within the
Internet Architecture. While the judicious use of link indications
can provide performance benefits, inappropriate use can degrade both
robustness and performance. This document summarizes current
proposals, describes the architectural issues and provides examples
of appropriate and inappropriate uses of link layer indications.
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction.............................................. 3
1.1 Requirements ....................................... 3
1.2 Terminology ........................................ 3
1.3 Overview ........................................... 6
1.4 Layered Indication Model ........................... 9
2. Architectural Considerations ............................. 14
2.1 Model Validation ................................... 14
2.2 Clear Definitions .................................. 15
2.3 Robustness ......................................... 16
2.4 Stability .......................................... 20
2.5 Effectiveness ...................................... 21
2.6 Interoperability ................................... 22
2.7 Race Conditions .................................... 22
2.8 Layer Compression .................................. 25
2.9 Transport of Link Indications ...................... 26
3. Future Work .............................................. 27
4. Security Considerations .................................. 28
5. References ............................................... 29
5.1 Informative References ............................. 29
Appendix A - Literature Review ............................... 36
A.1 Link Layer ......................................... 36
A.2 Internet Layer ..................................... 41
A.3 Transport Layer .................................... 43
A.4 Application Layer .................................. 47
Appendix B - IAB Members ..................................... 48
Intellectual Property Statement .............................. 48
Disclaimer of Validity ....................................... 48
Copyright Statement .......................................... 49
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1. Introduction
A link indication represents information provided by the link layer
to higher layers regarding the state of the link.
This document provides an overview of the role of link indications
within the Internet Architecture. While the judicious use of link
indications can provide performance benefits, experience has also
shown that that inappropriate use can degrade both robustness and
performance.
This document summarizes the current understanding of the role of
link indications, and provides advice to document authors about the
appropriate use of link indications.
In Section 1 describes the history of link indication usage within
the Internet architecture and provides a model for the utilization of
link indications. Section 2 provides advice to document authors.
Section 3 describes recommendations and future work. Appendix A
presents a summary of the literature on link indication utilization.
1.1. Requirements
The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
"SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and "OPTIONAL" in this
document are to be interpreted as described in [RFC2119].
1.2. Terminology
Access Point (AP)
A station that provides access to the distribution services, via
the wireless medium (WM) for associated stations.
Association
The service used to establish an access point/station (AP/STA)
mapping and enable STA access to the Distribution System.
Basic Service Set (BSS)
A set of stations controlled by a single coordination function,
where the coordination function may be centralized (e.g., in a
single AP) or distributed (e.g., for an ad-hoc network). The BSS
can be thought of as the coverage area of a single AP.
Beacon
A control message broadcast by a node (especially, a base station)
informing all the other nodes in its neighborhood of the continuing
presence of the broadcasting node, possibly along with additional
status or configuration information.
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Binding Update (BU)
A message indicating a mobile node's current mobility binding, and
in particular its care-of address.
Care of Address (CoA)
A unicast routable address associated with a mobile node while
visiting a foreign link; the subnet prefix of this IP address is a
foreign subnet prefix. Among the multiple care-of addresses that a
mobile node may have at any given time (e.g., with different subnet
prefixes), the one registered with the mobile node's home agent for
a given home address is called its "primary" care-of address.
Correspondent Node
A peer node with which a mobile node is communicating. The
correspondent node may be either mobile or stationary.
Distribution System (DS)
A system used to interconnect a set of basic service sets (BSSs)
and integrated local area networks (LANs) to create an extended
service set (ESS).
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) client
A DHCP client is an Internet host using DHCP to obtain
configuration parameters such as a network address.
DHCP server
A DHCP server or "server" is an Internet host that returns
configuration parameters to DHCP clients.
Extended Service Set (ESS)
A set of one or more interconnected basic service sets (BSSs) and
integrated local area networks (LANs) that appears as a single BSS
to the logical link control layer at any station associated with
one of those BSSs. The ESS can be thought of as the coverage area
provided by a collection of APs all interconnected by the
Distribution System. It may consist of one or more prefixes.
Home Address (HoA)
A unicast routable address assigned to a mobile node, used as the
permanent address of the mobile node. This address is within the
mobile node's home link. Standard IP routing mechanisms will
deliver packets destined for a mobile node's home address to its
home link. Mobile nodes can have multiple home addresses, for
instance when there are multiple home prefixes on the home link.
Home Agent (HA)
A router on a mobile node's home link with which the mobile node
has registered its current care-of address. While the mobile node
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is away from home, the home agent intercepts packets on the home
link destined to the mobile node's home address, encapsulates them,
and tunnels them to the mobile node's registered care-of address.
Inter-Access Point Protocol (IAPP)
A protocol used between access points that assures that the station
may only be connected to a single AP within the ESS at a time, and
also provides for transfer of context to the new AP.
Link A communication facility or physical medium that can sustain data
communications between multiple network nodes, such as an Ethernet
(simple or bridged). A link is the layer immediately below IP. In
a layered network stack model, the Link Layer (Layer 2) is normally
below the Network (IP) Layer (Layer 3), and above the Physical
Layer (Layer 1). Each link is associated with a minimum of two
endpoints. Each link endpoint has a unique link-layer identifier.
Asymmetric link
A link with transmission characteristics which are different
depending upon the relative position or design characteristics of
the transmitter and the receiver of data on the link. For
instance, the range of one transmitter may be much higher than the
range of another transmitter on the same medium.
Link Down
An event provided by the link layer that signifies a state change
associated with the interface no longer being capable of
communicating data frames; transient periods of high frame loss are
not sufficient.
Link Layer
Conceptual layer of control or processing logic that is responsible
for maintaining control of the data link. The data link layer
functions provide an interface between the higher-layer logic and
the data link. The link layer is the layer immediately below IP.
Link identifier
An indication provided by the link layer as to which network(s) a
host has connected to. Examples include the SSID with IEEE 802.11.
For details, see [DNAv4] Appendix A.
Link indication
Information provided by the link layer to higher layers regarding
the state of the link. In addition to "Link Up" and "Link Down"
indications, other relevant link information may include the
current link rate (which may vary with time and location), link
identifiers (e.g. SSID, BSSID in 802.11), and statistics relating
to link performance (such as the delay or loss rate).
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Link Up
An event provided by the link layer that signifies a state change
associated with the interface becoming capable of communicating
data frames.
Most Likely Network (MLN)
The attached network heuristically determined by the host to be
most likely, based on hints.
Point of Attachment
The link endpoint on the link to which the host is currently
connected.
Medium Access Protocol (MAC)
A protocol for mediating access to, and possibly allocation of, the
physical communications medium. Nodes participating in the medium
access protocol can communicate only when they have uncontested
access to the medium, so that there will be no interference. When
the physical medium is a radio channel, the MAC is the same as the
Channel Access Protocol.
Mobile Node
A node that can change its point of attachment from one link to
another, while still being reachable via its home address.
Routable address
In this specification, the term "routable address" refers to any
address other than an IPv4 Link-Local address [RFC3927]. This
includes private addresses as specified in [RFC1918].
Station (STA)
Any device that contains an IEEE 802.11 conformant medium access
control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) interface to the wireless
medium (WM).
Operable address
The term "operable address" refers to either a static address, or a
dynamically assigned address which has not been relinquished, and
has not expired.
Weak End-System Model
In the Weak End-System Model, packets sent out an interface need
not necessarily have a source address configured on that interface.
1.3. Overview
Link status was first taken into account in computer routing within
the ARPANET as early as 1969. In response to an attempt to send to a
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host that was off-line, the ARPANET link layer protocol provided a
"Destination Dead" indication [RFC816]. The ARPANET packet radio
experiment [PRNET] incorporated frame loss in the calculation of
routing metrics, a precursor to more recent link-aware routing
metrics such as [ETX].
"Routing Information Protocol" [RFC1058] defines RIP, which is
descended from the Xerox Network Systems (XNS) Routing Information
Protocol. "The Open Shortest Path First Specification" [RFC1131]
defines OSPF, which uses Link State Advertisements (LSAs) in order to
flood information relating to link status within an OSPF area. As
noted in "Requirements for IP Version 4 Routers" [RFC1812]:
It is crucial that routers have workable mechanisms for
determining that their network connections are functioning
properly. Failure to detect link loss, or failure to take the
proper actions when a problem is detected, can lead to black
holes.
"Fault Isolation and Recovery" [RFC826] Section 3 describes how hosts
interact with gateways for the purpose of fault detection and
recovery:
Since the gateways always attempt to have a consistent and
correct model of the internetwork topology, the host strategy for
fault recovery is very simple. Whenever the host feels that
something is wrong, it asks the gateway for advice, and,
assuming the advice is forthcoming, it believes the advice
completely. The advice will be wrong only during the transient
period of negotiation, which immediately follows an outage, but
will otherwise be reliably correct.
In ideal conditions, links in the "up" state experience low frame
loss in both directions and are immediately ready to send and receive
data frames; links in the "down" state are unsuitable for sending and
receiving data frames in either direction. Unfortunately links
frequently exhibit non-ideal behavior. Wired links may fail in half-
duplex mode, or exhibit partial impairment resulting in intermediate
loss rates. Wireless links may exhibit asymmetry or frame loss due
to interference or signal fading. In both wired and wireless links,
the link state may rapidly flap between the "up" and "down" states.
Routing protocol implementations have had to take real-world wired
link behavior into account in order to maintain robustness. In
"Analysis of link failures in an IP backbone" [Iannaccone] the
authors investigate link failures in Sprint's IP backbone. They
identify the causes of convergence delay, including delays in
detection of whether an interface is down or up. While it is fastest
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for a router to utilize link indications if available, there are
situations in which it is necessary to depend on loss of routing
packets to determine the state of the link. Once the link state has
been determined, a delay may occur within the routing protocol in
order to dampen link flaps. Finally, another delay may be introduced
in propagating the link state change, in order to rate limit link
state advertisements.
"Bidirectional Forwarding Detection" [BFD] notes that link layers may
provide only limited failure indications, and that relatively slow
"Hello" mechanisms are used in routing protocols to detect failures
when no link layer indications are available. This results in
failure detection times of the order of a second, which is too long
for some applications. The authors describe a mechanism that can be
used for liveness detection over any media, enabling rapid detection
of failures in the path between adjacent forwarding engines. A path
is declared operational when bi-directional reachability has been
confirmed.
More recently, the importance of realistic wireless link models has
become better appreciated. In "The mistaken axioms of wireless-
network research" [Kotz], the authors conclude that mistaken
assumptions relating to link behavior may lead to the design of
network protocols that may not work in practice. For example, [Kotz]
notes that the three-dimensional nature of wireless propagation can
result in large signal strength changes over short distances. This
can result in rapid changes in link indications such as rate, frame
loss, signal and signal/noise ratio.
In "Performance of Multihop Wireless Networks: Shortest Path is Not
Enough" [Shortest] the authors studied the performance of both an
indoor and outdoor mesh network. By measuring inter-node throughput,
the best path between nodes was computed. The throughput of the best
path was compared with the throughput of the shortest path computed
based on a hop-count metric. In almost all cases, the shortest path
route offered considerably lower throughput than the best path.
In examining link behavior, the authors found that rather than
exhibiting a bi-modal distribution between "up" (low loss rate) and
"down" (high loss rates), many links exhibited intermediate loss
rates. Asymmetry was also common, with 30 percent of links
demonstrating substantial differences between in the loss rates in
each direction. As a result, on wireless networks the measured
throughput can differ substantially from the negotiated rate due to
retransmissions, and successful delivery of routing packets is not
necessarily an indication that the link is useful for delivery of
data.
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The complexity of real-world link behavior poses a challenge to the
integration of link indications within the Internet architecture.
While the judicious use of link indications can provide performance
benefits, inappropriate use can degrade both robustness and
performance. This document provides guidance on the incorporation of
link indications within the Internet, Transport and Application
layers.
1.4. Layered Indication Model
A layered indication model is shown in Figure 1 which includes both
internally generated link indications and indications arising from
external interactions such as receipt of Mobile IP Binding Updates,
and path change detection.
In this model, link indications include frame loss (before
retransmissions), the current link rate, the link state (up/down),
and link identifiers. These indications may be inter-dependent,
since rate adjustment and detection algorithms are typically
influenced by frame loss, and a "Link Down" indication may be
influenced by the detection and search process. Link identifiers are
typically obtained in the process of bringing the link up.
The Internet layer is the primary user of link indications, since one
of its functions is to shield applications from the specifics of link
behavior. The Internet layer utilizes link indications in order to
to optimize aspects of IP configuration, routing and mobility. By
validating and filtering link indications and selecting outgoing and
incoming interfaces based on routing metrics, the Internet layer
enables upper layers to avoid dependency on link indications.
In "Detecting Network Attachment" [DNAv4], "Link Up" indications and
link identifiers are used as hints for validating an existing IP
configuration. Once the IP configuration is confirmed, it may be
determined that an address change has occurred. However, "Link Up"
indications often do not result in a change to Internet layer
configuration.
The routing sub-layer utilizes link indications in order to calculate
routing metrics and determine changes in link state. As described in
[Iannaccone], damping of link flaps and rate limiting of link state
advertisements are examples of how the routing sub-layer validates
and filters link indications.
"Fault Isolation and Recovery" [RFC826] describes how hosts interact
with gateways for the purpose of fault recovery:
Since the gateways always attempt to have a consistent and
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correct model of the internetwork topology, the host strategy for
fault recovery is very simple. Whenever the host feels that
something is wrong, it asks the gateway for advice, and,
assuming the advice is forthcoming, it believes the advice
completely. The advice will be wrong only during the transient
period of negotiation, which immediately follows an outage,
but will otherwise be reliably correct.
In fact, it is never necessary for a host to explicitly ask
a gateway for advice, because the gateway will provide it as
appropriate.
Within "Weak End-System Model" implementations, changes in routing
metrics and link state may result in a change in the outgoing
interface for one or more transport connections. Routes may also be
added or withdrawn, resulting in loss or gain of peer connectivity.
However, link indications such as changes in link rate or frame loss
do not necessarily result in a change of outgoing interface.
The Internet layer may also become aware of path changes by other
mechanisms, such as by running a routing protocol, receipt of a
Router Advertisement, dead gateway detection [RFC826] or a change in
the IP TTL of received packets. A change in the outgoing interface
may in turn influence the mobility sub-layer, causing a change in the
incoming interface. The mobility sub-layer may also become aware of
a change in the incoming interface of a peer (via receipt of a Mobile
IP binding update).
The Transport layer processes Internet layer and link indications
differently for the purposes of transport parameter estimation and
connection management. For the purposes of parameter estimation, the
Transport layer may be interested in a wide range of Internet and
link layer indications. The Transport layer may wish to use path
change indications from the Internet layer in order to reset
parameter estimates. It may also be useful for the Transport layer
to utilize link layer indications such as link rate, frame loss rate
and "Link Up"/"Link Down" in order to improve transport parameter
estimates.
As described in Section A.3, the algorithms for improving transport
parameter estimates using link layer indications are still under
development. In transport parameter estimation, layering
considerations do not exist to the same extent as in connection
management. For example, the Internet layer may receive a "Link
Down" indication followed by a subsequent "Link Up" indication. This
information may useful for transport parameter estimation even if IP
configuration does not change, since it may indicate the potential
for non-congestive packet loss during the period between the
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indications.
For the purposes of connection management, the Transport layer
typically only utilizes Internet layer indications such as changes in
the incoming/outgoing interface and IP configuration changes. For
example, the Transport layer may tear down transport connections due
to invalidation of a connection endpoint IP address. However, before
this can occur, the Internet layer must determine that a
configuration change has occurred.
Nevertheless, the Transport layer does not respond to all Internet
layer indications. For example, an Internet layer configuration
change may not be relevant for the purposes of connection management.
Where the connection has been established based on the home address,
a change in the care-of-address need not result in connection
teardown, since the configuration change is masked by the mobility
functionality within the Internet layer, and is therefore transparent
to the Transport layer.
Just as a "Link Up" event may not result in a configuration change,
and a configuration change may not result in connection teardown, the
Transport layer does not tear down connections on receipt of a "Link
Down" indication, regardless of the cause. Where the "Link Down"
indication results from frame loss rather than an explicit exchange,
the indication may be transient, to be soon followed by a "Link Up"
indication.
Even where the "Link Down" indication results from an explicit
exchange such as receipt of a PPP LCP-Terminate or an 802.11
Disassociate or Deauthenticate frame, an alternative point of
attachment may be available, allowing connectivity to be quickly
restored. As a result, robustness is best achieved by allowing
connections to remain up until an endpoint address changes, or the
connection is torn down due to lack of response to repeated
retransmission attempts.
For the purposes of connection management, the Transport layer is
cautious even with the use of Internet layer indications. As noted
in [RFC826], Section 6:
It is not obvious, when error messages such as ICMP Destination
Unreachable arrive, whether TCP should abandon the connection.
The reason that error messages are difficult to interpret is
that, as discussed above, after a failure of a gateway or network,
there is a transient period during which the gateways may have
incorrect information, so that irrelevant or incorrect error
messages may sometimes return. An isolated ICMP Destination
Unreachable may arrive at a host, for example, if a packet is sent
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during the period when the gateways are trying to find a new
route. To abandon a TCP connection based on such a message
arriving would be to ignore the valuable feature of the Internet
that for many internal failures it reconstructs its function
without any disruption of the end points.
In addition to Internet layer indications propagated to the
Application layer (such as IP address configuration and changes), the
Transport layer provides its own indications to the Application
layer, such as connection teardown. The Transport layer may also
provide indications to the link layer. For example, to prevent
excessive retransmissions within the link layer, where the link layer
retransmission timeout is significantly less than the path round-trip
timeout, the Transport layer may wish to control the maximum number
of times that a link layer frame may be retransmitted, so that the
link layer does not continue to retransmit after a Transport layer
timeout. In 802.11, this can be achieved by adjusting the MIB
variables dot11ShortRetryLimit (default: 7) and dot11LongRetryLimit
(default: 4), which control the maximum number of retries for frames
shorter and longer in length than dot11RTSThreshold, respectively.
However, since these variables control link behavior as a whole they
cannot be used to separately adjust behavior on a per-transport
connection basis. Also, in situations where the link layer
retransmission timeout is of the same order as the path round trip
timeout, link layer control may not be possible at all.
Since applications can obtain the information they need from Internet
and Transport layer indications they should not utilize link
indications. A "Link Up" indication implies that the link is capable
of communicating IP packets, but does not indicate that it has been
configured. As a result, applications will should utilize an
Internet layer "IP Address Configured" event instead of a "Link Up"
indication. Similarly, applications should not utilize "Link Down"
indications, since they can be rapidly followed by a "Link Up"
indication; instead, they should respond to Transport layer teardown
indications.
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+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
Application | |
Layer | |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
^ ^
! !
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-!-+-!-+-+-+-+
| ! ! |
| ^ ^ |
| Connection Management ! Teardown |
Transport | ! |
Layer +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-!-+-+-+-+-+-+
| ! |
| Transport Parameter Estimation ! |
| Estimation (MTU, RTT, RTO, cwnd, ! ssthresh)
| ^ |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-!-+-+-+-+-+-+
^ ^ ^ !
! ! ! !
+-+-+-!-+-+-+-+-+-!-+-+-+-!-+-+-+-+-!-+-+-+-+-+-+
| ! Incoming !MIP ! ! |
| ! Interface !BU ! ! |
| ! Change !Receipt! ! |
| ^ ^ ^ ^ |
Internet | ! Mobility ! ! ! |
Layer +-+-+-!-+-+-+-+-+-!-+-+-+-!-+-+-+-+-!-+-+-+-+-+-+
| ! Outgoing ! Path ! ! |
| ! Interface ! Change! ! |
| ^ Change ^ ^ ^ |
| ! ! |
| Routing ! ! |
| ^ ^ ! ! |
+-!-+-+-+-+-!-+-+-+-+-+-+-!-+-+-+-+-!-+-+-+-+-+-+
| ! ! ! ! IP |
| ! ! ! ! Address |
| ! IP !Configuration^ ^ Config/ |
| ! ! ! Changes |
+-!-+-+-+-+-!-+-+-+-+-+-+-!-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
! ! ! ^
! ! ! !
+-!-+-+-+-+-!-+-+-+-+-+-+-!-+-+-+-!-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| ! ! ! ! |
Link | ^ ^ ^ ^ |
Layer | Frame Rate Link Link |
| Loss Adjustment Up/Down Identifiers |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
Figure 1. Layered Indication Model
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2. Architectural Considerations
While the literature provides persuasive evidence of utility of link
indications, difficulties can arise in making effective use of them.
These include:
a. Model validation
b. Clear definitions
c. Robustness
d. Stability
e. Effectiveness
f. Interoperability
g. Race conditions
h. Layer compression
i. Transport of link indications
The sections that follow discuss each of these issues in turn.
2.1. Model Validation
Authors need to be careful to avoid use of simplified link models in
circumstances where they do not apply.
In "Modeling Wireless Links for Transport Protocols" [GurtovFloyd],
the authors provide examples of modeling mistakes and examples of how
to improve modeling of link characteristics. To accompany the paper
the authors provide simulation scenarios in ns-2.
In order to avoid the pitfalls described in [Kotz] [GurtovFloyd],
documents dependent on link indications should explicitly articulate
the assumptions of the link model and describe the circumstances in
which it applies.
For example, generic "trigger" models often include implicit
assumptions which may prove invalid in outdoor or mesh deployments.
For example, two-state Markov models where the link is either in a
state experiencing low frame loss ("up") or in a state where few
frames are successfully delivered ("down") have frequently been used.
In these models, symmetry is also typically assumed, so that the link
is either "up" in both directions or "down" in both directions. In
situations where intermediate loss rates are experienced, these
assumptions may be invalid.
Link indications based on signal quality "Link Quality Crosses
Threshold" typically assume the absence of multi-path interference,
so that signal to noise ratio varies smoothly in space, and frame
loss is well predicted by signal strength and distance.
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However, where multi-path interference is present, signal strength
and signal/noise ratio can vary rapidly and high signal/noise ratio
can co-exist with high frame loss. Where links may exist in
intermediate states between "up" and "down" or asymmetry is
encountered, a "Link Quality Crosses Threshold" indication may
exhibit excessive jitter and may prove to be unreliable predictors of
future link performance.
In particular, authors should be mindful of the following:
[1] Do not assume symmetric link performance or frame loss that is
either low ("up") or high ("down").
In wired networks, links in the "up" state typically experience low
frame loss in both directions and are ready to send and receive
data frames; links in the "down" state are unsuitable for sending
and receiving data frames in either direction. Therefore, a link
providing a "Link Up" indication will typically experience low
frame loss in both directions, and high frame loss in any direction
can only be experienced after a link provides a "Link Down"
indication. However, these assumptions may not hold true for
wireless networks.
Specifications utilizing a "Link Up" indication should not assume
that receipt of this indication means that the link is experiencing
symmetric link conditions or low frame loss in either direction.
In general, a "Link Up" event should not be sent due to transient
changes in link conditions, but only due to a change in link layer
state. It is best to assume that a "Link Up" event may not be sent
in a timely way. Large handoff latencies can result in a delay in
the generation of a "Link Up" event as movement to an alternative
point of attachment is delayed.
2.2. Clear Definitions
Once the network model is defined, considerable effort may be
required to define the meaning of link indications and clarify their
usage on different link layers. For example, considerable work has
been required in order to come up with the definitions of "Link Up"
and "Link Down", and to define when these indications are sent on
various link layers.
Attempts have also been made to define link indications other than
"Link Up" and "Link Down". "Dynamically Switched Link Control
Protocol" [RFC1307] defines an experimental protocol for control of
links, incorporating "Down", "Coming Up", "Up", "Going Down", "Bring
Down" and "Bring Up" states.
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[GenTrig] defines "generic triggers", including "Link Up", "Link
Down", "Link Going Down", "Link Going Up", "Link Quality Crosses
Threshold", "Trigger Rollback", and "Better Signal Quality AP
Available".
[IEEE-802.21] defines a Media Independent Handover Event Service
(MIH-ES) that provides event reporting relating to link
characteristics, link status, and link quality. Events defined
include "Link Down", "Link Up", "Link Going Down", "Link Signal
Strength" and "Link Signal/Noise Ratio".
Document authors defining new link indications should heed the
following advice:
[2] Think carefully about the sensitivity of link indications to
transient link conditions. Due to effects such as multi-path
interference, signal strength and signal/noise ratio may vary
rapidly over a short distance, causing rapid variations in
frame loss and rate, and jitter in link indications based on
these metrics. This can create problems for upper layers that
act on these indications without sufficient damping.
[3] Where possible, design link indications with built-in damping.
By design, the "Link Up" and "Link Down" events relate to
changes in the state of the link layer that make it able and
unable to communicate IP packets. These changes are either
generated by the link layer state machine based on link layer
exchanges (e.g. completion of the IEEE 802.11i four-way
handshake for "Link Up", or receipt of a PPP LCP-Terminate for
"Link Down") or by protracted frame loss, so that the link
layer concludes that the link is no longer usable. As a
result, these link indications are typically less sensitive to
changes in transient link conditions.
2.3. Robustness
In some situations, improper use of Link indications can result in
operational malfunctions. Given the potential problems, proposals
for consideration of link indications must demonstrate robustness
against misleading indications. Elements to consider include:
a. Implementation effects
b. Indication validation
c. Recovery from invalid indications
d. Damping and hysteresis
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2.3.1. Implementation Effects
Variations in link layer implementations may have a substantial
impact on the behavior of link indications. These variations need to
be taken into account in evaluating the performance of proposals.
Authors should consider the following advice:
[4] Do not assume that a "Link Down" event will be sent at all, or
that if sent, that it will received in a timely way. A good
link layer implementation will both rapidly detect
connectivity failure (such as by tracking missing Beacons)
while sending a "Link Down" event only when it concludes the
link is unusable, not due to transient frame loss.
However, existing implementations often do not do a good job
of detecting link failure. During a lengthy detection phase,
a "Link Down" event is not sent by the link layer, yet IP
packets cannot be transmitted or received on the link.
Initiation of a scan may be delayed so that the station cannot
find another point of attachment. This can result in
inappropriate backoff of retransmission timers within the
transport layer, among other problems.
2.3.2. Indication Validation
Radio propagation and implementation differences can impact the
reliability of Link indications.
As described in [Aguayo], wireless links often exhibit loss rates
intermediate between "up" (low loss) and "down" (high loss) states,
as well as substantial asymmetry. In these circumstances, a "Link
Up" indication may not imply bi-directional reachability. Also, a
reachability demonstration based on small packets may not mean that
the link is suitable for carrying larger data packets. As a result,
"Link Up" and "Link Down" indications may not reliably determine
whether a link is suitable for carrying IP data packets.
Where multi-path interference or hidden nodes are encountered, frame
loss may vary widely over a short distance. While techniques such as
use of multiple antennas may be used to reduce multi-path effects and
RTS/CTS signaling can be used to address hidden node problems, these
techniques may not be completely effective. As a result, a mobile
host may find itself experiencing widely varying link conditions,
causing the link to rapidly cycle between "up" and "down" states,
with "Going down" or "Going up" indications providing little
predictive value.
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Where the reliability of a link layer indication is suspect, it is
best for upper layers to treat the indication as a "hint" (advisory
in nature), rather than a "trigger" forcing a given action. In order
to provide increased robustness, heuristics can be developed to
assist upper layers in determining whether the "hint" is valid or
should be discarded.
To provide robustness in the face of potentially misleading link
indications, in [DNAv4] "Link Up" indications are assumed to be
inherently unreliable, so that bi-directional reachability needs to
be demonstrated in the process of validating an existing IPv4
configuration. However, where a link exhibits an intermediate loss
rate, the success of the [DNAv4] reachability test does not guarantee
that the link is suitable for carrying IP data packets.
Another example of link indication validation occurs in IPv4 Link-
Local address configuration [RFC3927]. Prior to configuration of an
IPv4 Link-Local address, it is necessary to run a claim and defend
protocol. Since a host needs to be present to defend its address
against another claimant, and address conflicts are relatively
likely, a host returning from sleep mode or receiving a "Link Up"
indication could encounter an address conflict were it to utilize a
formerly configured IPv4 Link-Local address without rerunning claim
and defend.
2.3.3. Recovery From Invalid Indications
Upper layers should utilize a timely recovery step so as to limit the
potential damage from link indications determined to be invalid after
they have been acted on.
Recovery is supported within [DNAv4] in the case where link
indications may lead a host to erroneously conclude that the link
prefix remains unchanged when the host has in fact changed networks.
In this case, the bi-directional reachability test times out, and the
host will eventually realize its mistake and obtain an IP address by
normal means.
Where a proposal involves recovery at the transport layer, the
recovered transport parameters (such as the MTU, RTT, RTO, congestion
window, etc.) must be demonstrated to remain valid. Congestion
window validation is discussed in [RFC2861].
Where timely recovery is not supported, unexpected consequences may
result. As described in [RFC3927], early IPv4 Link-Local
implementations would wait five minutes before attempting to obtain a
routable address after assigning an IPv4 Link-Local address. In one
implementation, it was observed that where mobile hosts changed their
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point of attachment more frequently than every five minutes, they
would never obtain a routable address.
The problem was caused by an invalid link indication (signaling of
"Link Up" prior to completion of link layer authentication),
resulting in an initial failure to obtain a routable address using
DHCP. As a result, [RFC3927] recommends against modification of the
maximum retransmission timeout (64 seconds) provided in [RFC2131].
2.3.4. Damping and Hysteresis
Damping and hysteresis can be utilized to ensure that stability is
maintained in the face of jittery link indications. These limits
typically place constraints on the number of times a given action can
be performed within a time period or introduce damping mechanisms to
prevent instability.
While [Aguayo] found that frame loss was relatively stable for
stationary stations, obstacles to radio propagation and multi-path
interference can result in rapid changes in signal strength for a
mobile station. As a result, it is possible for mobile stations to
encounter rapid changes in link performance, including changes in the
negotiated rate, frame loss and even "Link Up"/"Link Down"
indications.
Where link-aware routing metrics are implemented, this can result in
rapid metric changes, potentially resulting in frequent changes in
the outgoing interface for "Weak End-System" implementations. As a
result, it may be necessary to introduce route flap dampening.
However, the benefits of damping need to be weighed against the
additional latency that can be introduced. For example, in order to
filter out spurious "Link Down" indications, these indications may be
delayed until it can be determined that a "Link Up" indication will
not follow shortly thereafter. However, in situations where multiple
Beacons are missed such a delay may not be needed, since there is no
evidence of a suitable point of attachment in the vicinity.
In many cases it is desirable to ignore link indications entirely.
Since it is possible for a host to transition from an ad-hoc network
to a network with centralized address management, a host receiving a
"Link Up" indication cannot necessarily conclude that it is
appropriate to configure a IPv4 Link-Local address prior to
determining whether a DHCP server is available [RFC3927].
As noted in Section 1.4, the Transport layer does not utilize "Link
Up" and "Link Down" indications for the purposes of connection
management. Since applications can obtain the information they need
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from Internet and Transport layer indications they should not utilize
link indications.
2.4. Stability
Link indication proposals must demonstrate that effective congestion
control is maintained [RFC2914].
For example, algorithms that adjust rate based on frame loss need to
demonstrate conservatism in the face of congestion. The large
variance in rate adaptation behavior of existing 802.11
implementations is worrisome since implementations that rapidly
decrease the negotiated rate in response to frame loss can cause
congestive collapse in the link layer, even where backoff is
correctly implemented. For example, an implementation that decreases
rate by a factor of two while backing off the retransmission timer by
a factor of two has not really reduced consumption of the critical
resource, namely available slots within the MAC.
Consider a proposal where a "Link Up" indication is used by a host to
trigger retransmission of the last previously sent packet, in order
to enable ACK reception prior to expiration of the host's
retransmission timer. On a rapidly moving mobile node where "Link
Up" indications follow in rapid succession, this could result in a
burst of retransmitted packets, violating the principle of
"conservation of packets".
At the Application Layer, Link indications have been utilized by
applications such as Presence [RFC2778] in order to optimize
registration and user interface update operations. For example,
implementations may attempt presence registration on receipt of a
"Link Up" indication, and presence de-registration by a surrogate
receiving a "Link Down" indication.
Presence implementations using "Link Up"/"Link Down" indications this
way violate the principle of "conservation of packets" when link
indications are generated on a time scale of RTO or less. The
problem is magnified since for each presence update, notifications
can be delivered to many watchers. In addition, use of a "Link Up"
indication in this manner is unwise since the interface may not yet
have an operable Internet layer configuration.
The issue can be addressed by one or more of the following
techniques:
[a] Rate limiting. A limit of one packet per RTO can be imposed on
packets generated from receipt of link indications.
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[b] Utilization of upper layer indications. Instead of utilizing a
"Link Up" indication, applications can instead depend on upper
layer indications such as an IP address configuration/change
notifications.
[c] Keepalives. Instead of utilizing a "Link Down" indication, an
application can utilize an application keepalive or Transport
layer indications such as connection teardown.
[d] Stability analysis. Proposals must be analyzed to determine
whether they result in congestive collapse either in the transport
layer or at the link layer.
2.5. Effectiveness
While link indications may show promise, it may be difficult to prove
that processing of a given indication provides benefits in a wide
variety of circumstances. Where link indications are utilized for
the purpose of optimization, proposals need to carefully analyze the
effectiveness of the optimizations in the face of unreliable link
indications. Since optimizations typically bring with them increased
complexity, an optimization that does not bring about a performance
improvement is not useful.
As with any optimization, the usefulness of link indications lies in
demonstrated effectiveness of the optimization under consideration.
This in turn may depend heavily on the penalty to be paid for false
positives and false negatives.
As noted in [DNAv4], it is simultaneously possible for a link
indication to be highly reliable and provide no net benefit,
depending on the probability of a false indication and the penalty
paid for the false indication. In the case of [DNAv4], the benefits
of successful optimization are modest, but the penalty for falsely
concluding that the network remains unchanged is a lengthy timeout.
The result is that link indications may not be worth considering if
they are incorrect more than a small fraction of the time.
For example, it can be argued that a change in the Service Set
Identifier (SSID) in [IEEE-802.11] is not a sufficiently reliable
indication of a prefix change. Within IEEE 802.11, the Service Set
Identifier (SSID) functions as a non-unique identifier of the
administrative domain of a Wireless LAN. Since the SSID is non-
unique, many different operators may share the same SSID, and Access
Points typically ship with a default value for the SSID (e.g.
"default"). Since the SSID relates to the administrative domain and
not the network topology, multiple SSIDs may provide access to the
same prefix, and a single SSID may provide access to multiple
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prefixes at one or multiple locations.
Given this, it is unreliable to use the SSID alone for the purpose of
movement detection. A host moving from one point of attachment to
another, both with the same SSID, may have remained within the same
network, or may have changed networks. Similarly, a host
discovering that the SSID has changed may have changed networks, or
it may not have. Moreover, where private address space is in use, it
is possible for the SSID, the prefix (e.g. 192.168/16) and even the
default gateway IP address to remain unchanged, yet for the host to
have moved to a different network. Were the host to make decisions
relating to configuration of the IP layer (such as address
assignment) based solely on the SSID, address conflicts are likely.
2.6. Interoperability
In general, link indications should only be incorporated by upper
layers for performance optimization, but should not be required in
order to main link independence.
To avoid compromising interoperability in the pursuit of performance
optimization, proposals must demonstrate that interoperability
remains possible (though potentially with degraded performance) even
if one or more participants do not implement the proposal.
For example, if link layer prefix hints are provided as a substitute
for Internet layer configuration, hosts not understanding those hints
would be unable to obtain an IP address.
Where link indications are proposed to optimize Internet layer
configuration, proposals must demonstrate that they do not compromise
robustness by interfering with address assignment or routing protocol
behavior, making address collisions more likely, or compromising
Duplicate Address Detection (DAD).
2.7. Race Conditions
It is possible for link indications to be utilized directly by
multiple layers of the stack in situations in which strict layering
may not be observed. In these situations, it is possible for race
conditions to occur.
For example, as discussed earlier, link indications have been shown
to be useful in optimizing aspects of Internet Protocol layer
addressing and configuration as well as routing. Although [Kim]
describes situations in which link indications are first processed by
the Internet Protocol layer (e.g. MIPv6) before being utilized by the
Transport layer, for the purposes of parameter estimation, it may be
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desirable for the Transport layer to utilize link indications
directly.
For example, in situations where the "Weak End-System Model" is
implemented, a change of outgoing interface may occur at the same
time the Transport layer is modifying transport parameters based on
other link indications. As a result, transport behavior may differ
depending on the order in which the link indications are processed.
Where a multi-homed host experiences increasing frame loss on one of
its interfaces, a routing metric taking frame loss into account will
rise, potentially causing a change in the outgoing interface for one
or more transport connections. This may trigger Mobile IP signaling
so as to cause a change in the incoming path as well. As a result,
the transport parameters for the original interface (MTU, congestion
state) may no longer be valid for the new outgoing and incoming
paths.
To avoid race conditions, the following measures are recommended:
a. Path change processing
b. Layering
c. Metric consistency
2.7.1. Path Change Processing
When the Internet layer detects a path change, such as a change in
the outgoing or incoming interface of the host or the incoming
interface of a peer, or perhaps a substantial change in the TTL of
received IP packets, it may be worth considering whether to reset
transport parameters (RTT, RTO, cwnd, MTU) to their initial values
and allow them to be re-estimated. This ensures that estimates based
on the former path do not persist after they have become invalid.
Appendix A.3 summarizes the research on this topic.
2.7.2. Layering
Another technique to avoid race conditions is to rely on layering to
damp transient link indications and provide greater link layer
independence.
The Internet layer is responsible for routing as well as IP
configuration, and mobility, providing higher layers with an
abstraction that is independent of link layer technologies. Since
one of the major objectives of the Internet layer is maintaining link
layer independence, upper layers relying on Internet layer
indications rather than consuming link indications directly can avoid
link layer dependencies.
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In general, it is advisable for applications to utilize indications
from the Internet or Transport layers rather than consuming link
indications directly.
2.7.3. Metric Consistency
Once a link is in the "up" state, its effectiveness in transmission
of data packets can be determined. For example, frame loss may be
used to assist in rate adjustment and to determine when to select an
alternative point of attachment. Also, the effective throughput
depends on the negotiated rate and frame loss, and can be used in
calculation of the routing metric, as described in [ETX].
However, prior to sending data packets over the link, other metrics
are required to determine suitability. As noted in [Shortest], a
link that can successfully transmit the short frames utilized for
control, management or routing may not necessarily be able to
reliably transport data packets.
Since the negotiated rate and frame loss typically cannot be
predicted prior to utilizing the link for data traffic, existing
implementations often utilize metrics such as signal strength and
access point load in handoff decisions. The "Link Going Down",
"Link Going Up", "Link Quality Crosses Threshold" indications were
developed primarily to assist with handoff between interfaces, and
are oriented toward inferred rather than measured suitability.
Research indicates that this approach may have some promise. In
order to enable stations to roam prior to encountering packet loss,
studies such as [Vatn] have suggested using signal strength as a
detection mechanism, rather than frame loss, as suggested in
[Velayos]. [Vertical] proposes use of signal strength and link
utilization in order to optimize vertical handoff and demonstrates
improved TCP throughput.
However, without careful design, potential differences between link
indications used in routing and those used in roaming and/or link
enablement can result in instability, particularly in multi-homed
hosts. For example, receipt of "Link Going Down" or "Link Quality
Crosses Threshold" indications could be used as a signal to enable
another interface. However, unless the new interface is the
preferred route for one or more destination prefixes, a "Weak End-
System" implementation will not use the new interface for outgoing
traffic. Where "idle timeout" functionality is implemented, the
unused interface will be brought down, only to be brought up again by
the link enablement algorithm.
As noted in [Aguayo], signal strength and distance are not good
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predictors of frame loss or negotiated rate, due to the potential
effects of multi-path interference. As a result a link brought up
due to good signal strength may subsequently exhibit significant
frame loss, and a low negotiated rate. Similarly, an AP
demonstrating low utilization may not necessarily be the best choice,
since utilization may be low due to hardware or software problems.
[Villamizar] notes that link utilization-based routing metrics have a
history of instability, so that they are rarely deployed.
2.8. Layer compression
In many situations, the exchanges required for a host to complete a
handoff and reestablish connectivity are considerable. This includes
link layer scanning, authentication and connectivity establishment;
Internet layer configuration, routing and mobility exchanges;
Transport layer retransmission and recovery; security association re-
establishment; application protocol re-authentication and re-
registration exchanges, etc. It is therefore natural to consider
combining exchanges occurring within multiple layers in order to
reduce overhead.
Often this combined exchange occurs within the link layer. For
example, in [EAPIKEv2], a link layer EAP exchange may be used for the
purpose of IP address assignment, potentially bypassing Internet
layer configuration. Within [PEAP], it is proposed that a link layer
EAP exchange be used for the purpose of carrying Mobile IPv6 Binding
Updates. [MIPEAP] proposes that EAP exchanges be used for
configuration of Mobile IPv6.
While the goals of layer compression are laudable, care needs to be
taken to avoid compromising interoperability and introducing link
layer dependencies into the Internet and Transport layers. For
example, where link, Internet or Transport layer mechanisms are
combined, hosts need to maintain backward compatibility to permit
operation on networks where compression schemes are not available.
Layer compression schemes may also negatively impact robustness. For
example, in order to optimize IP address assignment, it has been
proposed that prefixes be advertised at the link layer, such as
within the 802.11 Beacon and Probe Response frames. However,
[IEEE-802.1X] enables the VLANID to be assigned dynamically, so that
prefix(es) advertised within the Beacon and/or Probe Response may not
correspond to the prefix(es) configured by the Internet layer after
the host completes link layer authentication. Were the host to
handle IP configuration at the link layer rather than within the
Internet layer, the host might be unable to communicate due to
assignment of the wrong IP address.
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2.9. Transport of Link Indications
Proposals including the transport of link indications beyond the
local host need to carefully consider the layering, security and
transport implications.
In general, implicit signals are preferred to explicit transport of
link indications since they add no new packets in times of network
distress, operate more reliably in the presence of middle boxes such
as NA(P)Ts, and are more likely to be backward compatible.
While facilities such as ICMP "source quench" were originally
provided at the Internet layer, these facilities have fallen into
disuse due to their questionable value for the Transport layer. In
general, the Transport layer is able to determine an appropriate (and
conservative) response to congestion based on packet loss or explicit
congestion notification, so that ICMP "source quench" indications are
not needed, and in fact the sending of additional "source quench"
packets during periods of congestion may be detrimental.
Routing metrics incorporating link layer indications enable gateways
to obtain knowledge of path changes and take remote link conditions
into account for the purposes of route selection. When a link
experiences frame loss, routing metrics incorporating frame loss such
as the metric described in [ETX] increase, possibly resulting in
selection of an alternate route. If a troubled link represents the
only path to a prefix and the link experiences high frame loss
("down"), the route will be withdrawn or the metric will become
infinite. Similarly, when the link becomes operational, the route
will appear again. Where routing protocol security is implemented,
this information can be securely propagated.
Where explicit signaling is required, existing facilities should be
used rather than creating new ones. "Fault Isolation and Recovery"
[RFC826] Section 3 describes how hosts can make use of ICMP messages:
In fact, it is never necessary for a host to explicitly ask a
gateway for advice, because the gateway will provide it as
appropriate. When a host sends a datagram to some distant net,
the host should be prepared to receive back either of two advisory
messages which the gateway may send. The ICMP "redirect" message
indicates that the gateway to which the host sent the datagram is
not longer the best gateway to reach the net in question. The
gateway will have forwarded the datagram, but the host should
revise its routing table to have a different immediate address
for this net. The ICMP "destination unreachable" message
indicates that as a result of an outage, it is currently
impossible to reach the addressed net or host in any manner. On
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receipt of this message, a host can either abandon the connection
immediately without any further retransmission, or resend slowly
to see if the fault is corrected in reasonable time.
"TCP Extensions for Immediate Retransmissions" [Eggert] describes how
a Transport layer implementation may utilize existing "end-to-end
connectivity restored" indications.
Proposals involving transport of link indications need to demonstrate
the following:
[a] Absence of alternatives. By default, alternatives not requiring
explicit signaling are preferred. Where these solutions are shown
to be inadequate, proposals must prove that existing explicit
signaling mechanisms (such as path change processing and link-
aware routing metrics) are inadequate.
[b] Conservative behavior. Due to experience with ICMP "source
quench", proposals must demonstrate that they do not violate
conservation of packets.
[c] Security. Proposals need to describe how security issues can be
addressed. Where link indications are transported over the
Internet, an attack can be launched without requiring access to
the link.
[d] Identifiers. When link indications are transported, it is
generally for the purposes of saying something about Internet,
Transport or Application layer operations at a remote element.
These layers use different identifiers, and so it is necessary to
match the link indication with relevant higher layer state.
Therefore proposals need to demonstrate how the link indication
can be mapped to the right higher layer state.
For example, if a presence server is receiving remote indications
of "Link Up"/"Link Down" status for a particular MAC address, the
presence server will need to associate that MAC address with the
identity of the user (pres:user@example.com) to whom that link
status change is relevant.
3. Future Work
While Figure 1 presents an overview of how link indications are
utilized by the Internet, Transport and Application layers, further
work is needed to investigate this in more detail.
More work is needed in the area of link-aware routing metrics. For
example, since recent proposals such as [IEEE-802.11e] incorporate
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burst ACKs, the relationship between 802.11 link throughput and frame
loss is growing more complex. This may necessitate the development
of revised routing metrics, taking the more complex retransmission
behavior into account, as well as the negotiated rate.
At the Link and Internet layers, more work is needed to reconcile pre
and post-connection metrics, such as reconciling metrics utilized in
handoff (e.g. signal strength and link utilization) with link-aware
routing metrics (e.g. frame loss and negotiated rate).
At the Transport layer, more work is needed to understand how to
react to Internet layer indications such as path changes. It may
also make sense for the Transport layer to adjust transport parameter
estimates in response to "Link Up"/"Link Down" indications and frame
loss. For example, it is unclear that the Transport layer should
adjust transport parameters as though congestion were detected when
loss is occurring in the link layer or a "Link Down" indication has
been received.
Finally, more work is needed to determine how link layers may utilize
information from the Transport layer. For example, it is undesirable
for a link layer to retransmit so aggressively that the link layer
round-trip time approaches that of the end-to-end transport
connection.
4. Security Considerations
Since link indications are typically insecure, proposals
incorporating them need to consider the potential security
implications of spoofed or modified link indications, as well as
potential denial of service attacks. This is particularly important
in situations where insecure link indications are used as a
substitute for secure mechanisms operating at a higher layer.
For example, within [IEEE-802.11F], "Link Up" is considered to occur
when an Access Point sends a Reassociation Response. At that point,
the AP sends a frame with the station's source address to a multicast
address, thereby causing switches within the Distribution System to
learn the station's MAC address, enabling forwarding of frames to the
station at the new point of attachment. Unfortunately, this does not
take security into account, since the station is not capable of
sending and receiving IP packets on the link until completion of the
key exchange protocol defined in [IEEE-802.11i]. As a result, link
indications as implemented in [IEEE-802.11F] enable an attacker to
disassociate a station located anywhere within the ESS, by sending a
Reassociation Request frame.
Another example of the potential security implications of link
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indications occurs within DNAv4, where link indications are used for
optimization of IP configuration, rather than using a secured
configuration mechanism such as authenticated DHCP [RFC3118], thereby
increasing vulnerability to spoofing.
5. References
5.1. Informative References
[RFC816] Clark, D., "Fault Isolation and Recovery", RFC 816, July 1982.
[RFC1058] Hedrick, C., "Routing Information Protocol", RFC 1058, June
1988.
[RFC1131] Moy, J., "The OSPF Specification", RFC 1131, October 1989.
[RFC1307] Young, J. and A. Nicholson, "Dynamically Switched Link Control
Protocol", RFC 1307, March 1992.
[RFC1661] Simpson, W., "The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)", STD 51, RFC
1661, July 1994.
[RFC1812] Baker, F., "Requirements for IP Version 4 Routers", RFC 1812,
June 1995.
[RFC1918] Rekhter, Y., Moskowitz, B., Karrenberg, D., de Groot, D. and
E. Lear, "Address Allocation for Private Internets", RFC 1918,
February 1996.
[RFC2119] Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119, March 1997.
[RFC2131] Droms, R., "Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol", RFC 2131,
March 1997.
[RFC2778] Day, M., Rosenberg, J. and H. Sugano, "A Model for Presence
and Instant Messaging", RFC 2778, February 2000.
[RFC2861] Handley, M., Padhye, J. and S. Floyd, "TCP Congestion Window
Validation", RFC 2861, June 2000.
[RFC2914] Floyd, S., "Congestion Control Principles", RFC 2914, BCP 41,
September 2000.
[RFC3118] Droms, R. and B. Arbaugh, "Authentication for DHCP Messages",
RFC 3118, June 2001.
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[RFC3428] Campbell, B., Rosenberg, J., Schulzrinne, H., Huitema, C. and
D. Gurle, "Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) Extension for
Instant Messaging", RFC 3428, December 2002.
[RFC3775] Johnson, D., Perkins, C. and J. Arkko, "Mobility Support in
IPv6", RFC 3775, June 2004.
[RFC3921] Saint-Andre, P., "Extensible Messaging and Presence protocol
(XMPP): Instant Messaging and Presence", RFC 3921, October
2004.
[RFC3927] Cheshire, S., Aboba, B. and E. Guttman, "Dynamic Configuration
of Link-Local IPv4 Addresses", RFC 3927, May 2005.
[Alimian] Alimian, A., "Roaming Interval Measurements",
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the Error Characteristics of an In-Building Wireless Network",
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now-01.txt, Internet draft (work in progress), September 2004.
[ETX] Douglas S. J. De Couto, Daniel Aguayo, John Bicket, and Robert
Morris, "A High-Throughput Path Metric for Multi-Hop Wireless
Routing", Proceedings of the 9th ACM International Conference
on Mobile Computing and Networking (MobiCom '03), San Diego,
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Triggers", submission to IEEE 802.21 (work in progress), March
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[HMP] Lee, S., Cho, J. and A. Campbell, "Hotspot Mitigation Protocol
(HMP)", draft-lee-hmp-00.txt, Internet draft (work in
progress), October 2003.
[Holland] Holland, G. and N. Vaidya, "Analysis of TCP Performance over
Mobile Ad Hoc Networks", Proceedings of the Fifth
International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking,
pages 219-230. ACM/IEEE, Seattle, August 1999.
[Iannaccone]
Iannaccone, G., Chuah, C., Mortier, R., Bhattacharyya, S. and
C. Diot, "Analysis of link failures in an IP backbone", Proc.
of ACM Sigcomm Internet Measurement Workshop, November, 2002.
[IEEE-802.1X]
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, "Local and
Metropolitan Area Networks: Port-Based Network Access
Control", IEEE Standard 802.1X, December 2004.
[IEEE-802.11]
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, "Wireless
LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY)
Specifications", IEEE Standard 802.11, 2003.
[IEEE-802.11e]
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, "Draft
Amendment 7: Medium Access Control (MAC) Quality of Service
(QoS) Enhancements", IEEE 802.11e Draft 10.0, October 2004.
[IEEE-802.11F]
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, "IEEE
Trial-Use Recommended Practice for Multi-Vendor Access Point
Interoperability via an Inter-Access Point Protocol Across
Distribution Systems Supporting IEEE 802.11 Operation", IEEE
802.11F, June 2003.
[IEEE-802.11i]
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, "Supplement
to Standard for Telecommunications and Information Exchange
Between Systems - LAN/MAN Specific Requirements - Part 11:
Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer
(PHY) Specifications: Specification for Enhanced Security",
IEEE 802.11i, July 2004.
[IEEE-802.11k]
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, "Draft
Amendment to Telecommunications and Information Exchange
Between Systems - LAN/MAN Specific Requirements - Part 11:
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Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer
(PHY) Specifications - Amendment 7: Radio Resource
Management", IEEE 802.11k/D2.0, February 2005.
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Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, "Draft
Standard for Telecommunications and Information Exchange
Between Systems - LAN/MAN Specific Requirements - Part 21:
Media Independent Handover", IEEE 802.21D0, June 2005.
[Kim] Kim, K., Park, Y., Suh, K., and Y. Park, "The BU-trigger
method for improving TCP performance over Mobile IPv6", draft-
kim-tsvwg-butrigger-00.txt, Internet draft (work in progress),
August 2004.
[Kotz] Kotz, D., Newport, C. and C. Elliot, "The mistaken axioms of
wireless-network research", Dartmouth College Computer Science
Technical Report TR2003-467, July 2003.
[Krishnan]
Krishnan, R., Allman, M., Partridge, P. and J. Sterbenz,
"Explicit Transport Error Notification (ETEN) for Error-Prone
Wireless and Satellite Networks", Technical Report No. 8333,
BBN Technologies, March 2002.
[Lee] Park, S., Lee, M. and J. Korhonen, "Link Characteristics
Information for Mobile IP", draft-daniel-mip-link-
characteristic-01.txt, Internet draft (work in progress),
April 2005.
[Ludwig] Ludwig, R. and B. Rathonyi, "Link-layer Enhancements for
TCP/IP over GSM", Proceedings of IEEE Infocom '99, March 1999.
[MIPEAP] Giaretta, C., Guardini, I., Demaria, E., Bournelle, J. and M.
Laurent-Maknavicius, "MIPv6 Authorization and Configuration
based on EAP", draft-giaretta-mip6-authorization-eap-02.txt,
Internet draft (work in progress), October 2004.
[Mishra] Mitra, A., Shin, M., and W. Arbaugh, "An Empirical Analysis of
the IEEE 802.11 MAC Layer Handoff Process", CS-TR-4395,
University of Maryland Department of Computer Science,
September 2002.
[Mitani] Mitani, K., Shibui, R., Gogo, K. and F. Teraoka, "Unified L2
Abstractions for L3-Driven Fast Handover", draft-koki-mobopts-
l2-abstractions-02.txt, Internet draft (work in progress),
February 2005.
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[Mun] Mun, Y. and J. Park, "Layer 2 Handoff for Mobile-IPv4 with
802.11", draft-mun-mobileip-layer2-handoff-mipv4-01.txt,
Internet draft (work in progress), March 2004.
[PEAP] Palekar, A., Simon, D., Salowey, J., Zhou, H., Zorn, G. and S.
Josefsson, "Protected EAP Protocol (PEAP) Version 2", draft-
josefsson-pppext-eap-tls-eap-10.txt, Internet draft (work in
progress), October 2004.
[Park] Park, S., Njedjou, E. and N. Montavont, "L2 Triggers Optimized
Mobile IPv6 Vertical Handover: The 802.11/GPRS Example",
draft-daniel-mip6-optimized-vertical-handover-00.txt, July
2004. ,IP [PRNET] Jubin, J. and J. Tornow, "The DARPA packet
radio network protocols", Proceedings of the IEEE, 75(1),
January 1987.
[Ramani] Ramani, I. and S. Savage, "SyncScan: Practical Fast Handoff
for 802.11 Infrastructure Networks", Proceedings of the IEEE
InfoCon 2005, March 2005.
[Scott] Scott, J., Mapp, G., "Link Layer Based TCP Optimisation for
Disconnecting Networks", ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication
Review, 33(5), October 2003.
[Shortest]
Douglas S. J. De Couto, Daniel Aguayo, Benjamin A. Chambers
and Robert Morris, "Performance of Multihop Wireless Networks:
Shortest Path is Not Enough", Proceedings of the First
Workshop on Hot Topics in Networking (HotNets-I), Princeton,
New Jersey, October 2002.
[Swami] Swami, Y., Le, K., Eddy, W., "Lightweight Mobility Detection
and Response (LMDR) Algorithm for TCP", draft-swami-tcp-
lmdr-05, Internet draft (work in progress), February 2005.
[TRIGTRAN]
Dawkins, S., Williams, C. and A. Yegin, "Framework and
Requirements for TRIGTRAN", draft-dawkins-trigtran-
framework-00.txt, Internet draft (work in progress), August
2003.
[Vatn] Vatn, J., "An experimental study of IEEE 802.11b handover
performance and its effect on voice traffic", TRITA-IMIT-
TSLAB R 03:01, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm,
Sweden, July 2003.
[Yegin] Yegin, A., "Link-layer Triggers Protocol", draft-yegin-
l2-triggers-00.txt, Internet Draft (work in progress), June
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2002.
[Velayos] Velayos, H. and G. Karlsson, "Techniques to Reduce IEEE
802.11b MAC Layer Handover Time", TRITA-IMIT-LCN R 03:02, KTH
Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, April 2003.
[Vertical]
Zhang, Q., Guo, C., Guo, Z. and W. Zhu, "Efficient Mobility
Management for Vertical Handoff between WWAN and WLAN", IEEE
Communications Magazine, November 2003.
[Villamizar]
Villamizar, C., "OSPF Optimized Multipath (OSPF-OMP)", draft-
ietf-ospf-omp-02.txt, Internet draft (work in progress),
February 1999.
[Xylomenos]
Xylomenos, G., "Multi Service Link Layers: An Approach to
Enhancing Internet Performance over Wireless Links", Ph.D.
thesis, University of California at San Diego, 1999.
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Appendix A - Literature Review
This Appendix summarizes the literature on utilization of link
indications within the Link, Internet, Transport and Application
layers.
A.1 Link Layer
The characteristics of wireless links have been found to vary
considerably depending on the environment. In "Measurement and
Analysis of the Error Characteristics of an In-Building Wireless
Network" [Eckhardt], the authors characterize the performance of an
AT&T Wavelan 2 Mbps in-building WLAN operating in Infrastructure mode
on the Carnegie-Mellon Campus. In this study, very low frame loss
was experienced. As a result, links could either be assumed to
operate very well or not at all.
"Link-level Measurements from an 802.11b Mesh Network" [Aguayo]
analyzes the causes of frame loss in a 38-node urban multi-hop 802.11
ad-hoc network. In most cases, links that are very bad in one
direction tend to be bad in both directions, and links that are very
good in one direction tend to be good in both directions. However,
30 percent of links exhibited loss rates differing substantially in
each direction.
Signal to noise ratio and distance showed little value in predicting
loss rates, and rather than exhibiting a step-function transition
between "up" (low loss) or "down" (high loss) states, inter-node
loss rates varied widely, demonstrating a nearly uniform distribution
over the range at the lower rates. The authors attribute the
observed effects to multi-path fading, rather than attenuation or
interference.
The findings of [Eckhardt] and [Aguayo] demonstrate the diversity of
link conditions observed in practice. While for indoor
infrastructure networks site surveys and careful measurement can
assist in promoting ideal behavior, in ad-hoc/mesh networks node
mobility and external factors such as weather may not be easily
controlled.
Considerable diversity in behavior is also observed due to
implementation effects. "Techniques to reduce IEEE 802.11b MAC layer
handover time" [Velayos] measured handover times for a stationary STA
after the AP was turned off. This study divided handover times into
detection (determination of disconnection from the existing point of
attachment) search (discovery of alternative attachment points), and
execution phases (connection to an alternative point of attachment).
These measurements indicated that the duration of the detection phase
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(the largest component of handoff delay) is determined by the number
of non-acknowledged frames triggering the search phase and delays due
to precursors such as RTS/CTS and rate adaptation.
Detection behavior varied widely between implementations. For
example, NICs designed for desktops attempted more retransmissions
prior to triggering search as compared with laptop designs, since
they assumed that the AP was always in range, regardless of whether
the Beacon was received.
The study recommends that the duration of the detection phase be
reduced by initiating the search phase as soon as collisions can be
excluded as the cause of non-acknowledged transmissions; the authors
recommend three consecutive transmission failures as the cutoff.
This approach is both quicker and more immune to multi-path
interference than monitoring of the S/N ratio. Where the STA is not
sending or receiving frames, it is recommended that Beacon reception
be tracked in order to detect disconnection, and that Beacon spacing
be reduced to 60 ms in order to reduce detection times. In order to
compensate for more frequent triggering of the search phase, the
authors recommend algorithms for wait time reduction, as well as
interleaving of search and data frame transmission.
"An Empirical Analysis of the IEEE 802.11 MAC Layer Handoff Process"
[Mishra] investigates handoff latencies obtained with three mobile
STAs implementations communicating with two APs. The study found
that there is large variation in handoff latency among STA and AP
implementations and that implementations utilize different message
sequences. For example, one STA sends a Reassociation Request prior
to authentication, which results in receipt of a Deauthenticate
message. The study divided handoff latency into discovery,
authentication and reassociation exchanges, concluding that the
discovery phase was the dominant component of handoff delay. Latency
in the detection phase was not investigated.
"SyncScan: Practical Fast Handoff for 802.11 Infrastructure Networks"
[Ramani] weighs the pros and cons of active versus passive scanning.
The authors point out the advantages of timed beacon reception, which
had previously been incorporated into [IEEE-802.11k]. Timed beacon
reception allows the station to continually keep up to date on the
S/N ratio of neighboring APs, allowing handoff to occur earlier.
Since the station does not need to wait for initial and subsequent
responses to a broadcast Probe Response (MinChannelTime and
MaxChannelTime, respectively), performance is comparable to what is
achievable with 802.11k Neighbor Reports and unicast Probe Requests.
The authors measure the channel switching delay, the time it takes to
switch to a new frequency, and begin receiving frames. Measurements
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ranged from 5 ms to 19 ms per channel; where timed Beacon reception
or interleaved active scanning is used, switching time contributes
significantly to overall handoff latency. The authors propose
deployment of APs with Beacons synchronized via NTP, enabling a
driver implementing SyncScan to work with legacy APs without
requiring implementation of new protocols. The authors measure the
distribution of inter-arrival times for stations implementing
SyncScan, with excellent results.
"Roaming Interval Measurements" [Alimian] presents data on stationary
STAs after the AP signal has been shut off. This study highlighted
implementation differences in rate adaptation as well as detection,
scanning and handoff. As in [Velayos], performance varied widely
between implementations, from half an order of magnitude variation
in rate adaptation to an order of magnitude difference in detection
times, two orders of magnitude in scanning, and one and a half orders
of magnitude in handoff times.
"An experimental study of IEEE 802.11b handoff performance and its
effect on voice traffic" [Vatn] describes handover behavior observed
when the signal from AP is gradually attenuated, which is more
representative of field experience than the shutoff techniques used
in [Velayos]. Stations were configured to initiate handover when
signal strength dipped below a threshold, rather than purely based on
frame loss, so that they could begin handover while still connected
to the current AP. It was noted that stations continue to receive
data frames during the search phase. Station-initiated
Disassociation and pre-authentication were not observed in this
study.
A.1.1 Link Indications
Within a link layer, the definition of "Link Up" and "Link Down" may
vary according to the deployment scenario. For example, within PPP
[RFC1661], either peer may send an LCP-Terminate frame in order to
terminate the PPP link layer, and a link may only be assumed to be
usable for sending network protocol packets once NCP negotiation has
completed for that protocol.
Unlike PPP, IEEE 802 does not include facilities for network layer
configuration, and the definition of "Link Up" and "Link Down" varies
by implementation. Empirical evidence suggests that the definition
of "Link Up" and "Link Down" may depend whether the station is mobile
or stationary, whether infrastructure or ad-hoc mode is in use, and
whether security and Inter-Access Point Protocol (IAPP) is
implemented.
Where a mobile 802.11 STA encounters a series of consecutive non-
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acknowledged frames, the most likely cause is that the station has
moved out of range of the AP. As a result, [Velayos] recommends that
the station begin the search phase after collisions can be ruled out,
after three consecutive non-acknowledged frames. Only when no
alternative point of attachment is found is a "Link Down" indication
returned.
In a stationary point-to-point installation, the most likely cause of
an outage is that the link has become impaired, and alternative
points of attachment may not be available. As a result,
implementations configured to operate in this mode tend to be more
persistent. For example, within 802.11 the short interframe space
(SIFS) interval may be increased and MIB variables relating to
timeouts (such as dot11AuthenticationResponseTimeout,
dot11AssociationResponseTimeout, dot11ShortRetryLimit, and
dot11LongRetryLimit) may be set to larger values. In addition a
"Link Down" indication may be returned later.
In 802.11 ad-hoc mode with no security, reception of data frames is
enabled in State 1 ("Unauthenticated" and "Unassociated"). As a
result, reception of data frames is enabled at any time, and no
explicit "Link Up" indication exists.
In Infrastructure mode, IEEE 802.11-2003 enables reception of data
frames only in State 3 ("Authenticated" and "Associated"). As a
result, a transition to State 3 (e.g. completion of a successful
Association or Reassociation exchange) enables sending and receiving
of network protocol packets and a transition from State 3 to State 2
(reception of a "Disassociate" frame) or State 1 (reception of a
"Deauthenticate" frame) disables sending and receiving of network
protocol packets. As a result, IEEE 802.11 stations typically signal
"Link Up" on receipt of a successful Association/Reassociation
Response.
As described within [IEEE-802.11F], after sending a Reassociation
Response, an Access Point will send a frame with the station's source
address to a multicast destination. This causes switches within the
Distribution System (DS) to update their learning tables, readying
the DS to forward frames to the station at its new point of
attachment. Were the AP to not send this "spoofed" frame, the
station's location would not be updated within the distribution
system until it sends its first frame at the new location. Thus the
purpose of spoofing is to equalize uplink and downlink handover
times. This enables an attacker to deny service to authenticated and
associated stations by spoofing a Reassociation Request using the
victim's MAC address, from anywhere within the ESS. Without
spoofing, such an attack would only be able to disassociate stations
on the AP to which the Reassociation Request was sent.
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The signaling of "Link Down" is considerably more complex. Even
though a transition to State 2 or State 1 results in the station
being unable to send or receive IP packets, this does not necessarily
imply that such a transition should be considered a "Link Down"
indication. In an infrastructure network, a station may have a
choice of multiple access points offering connection to the same
network. In such an environment, a station that is unable to reach
State 3 with one access point may instead choose to attach to another
access point. Rather than registering a "Link Down" indication with
each move, the station may instead register a series of "Link Up"
indications.
In [IEEE-802.11i] forwarding of frames from the station to the
distribution system is only feasible after the completion of the
4-way handshake and group-key handshake, so that entering State 3 is
no longer sufficient. This has resulted in several observed
problems. For example, where a "Link Up" indication is triggered on
the station by receipt of an Association/Reassociation Response, DHCP
[RFC2131] or RS/RA may be triggered prior to when the link is usable
by the Internet layer, resulting in configuration delays or failures.
Similarly, Transport layer connections will encounter packet loss,
resulting in back-off of retransmission timers.
A.1.2 Smart Link Layer Proposals
In order to improve link layer performance, several studies have
investigated "smart link layer" proposals.
In "Link-layer Enhancements for TCP/IP over GSM" [Ludwig], the
authors describe how the GSM reliable and unreliable link layer modes
can be simultaneously utilized without higher layer control. Where a
reliable link layer protocol is required (where reliable transports
such TCP and SCTP are used), the Radio Link Protocol (RLP) can be
engaged; with delay sensitive applications such as those based on
UDP, the transparent mode (no RLP) can be used. The authors also
describe how PPP negotiation can be optimized over high latency GSM
links using "Quickstart-PPP".
In "Link Layer Based TCP Optimisation for Disconnecting Networks"
[Scott], the authors describe performance problems that occur with
reliable transport protocols facing periodic network disconnections,
such as those due to signal fading or handoff. The authors define a
disconnection as a period of connectivity loss that exceeds a
retransmission timeout, but is shorter than the connection lifetime.
One issue is that link-unaware senders continue to backoff during
periods of disconnection. The authors suggest that a link-aware
reliable transport implementation halt retransmission after receiving
a "Link Down" indication. Another issue is that on reconnection the
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lengthened retransmission times cause delays in utilizing the link.
To improve performance, a "smart link layer" is proposed, which
stores the first packet that was not successfully transmitted on a
connection, then retransmits it upon receipt of a "Link Up"
indication. Since a disconnection can result in hosts experiencing
different network conditions upon reconnection, the authors do not
advocate bypassing slowstart or attempting to raise the congestion
window. Where IPsec is used and connections cannot be differentiated
because transport headers are not visible, the first untransmitted
packet for a given sender and destination IP address can be
retransmitted. In addition to looking at retransmission of a single
packet per connection, the authors also examined other schemes such
as retransmission of multiple packets and rereception of single or
multiple packets.
In general, retransmission schemes were superior to rereception
schemes, since rereception cannot stimulate fast retransmit after a
timeout. Retransmission of multiple packets did not appreciably
improve performance over retransmission of a single packet. Since
the focus of the research was on disconnection rather than just lossy
channels, a two state Markov model was used, with the "up" state
representing no loss, and the "down" state representing one hundred
percent loss.
In "Multi Service Link Layers: An Approach to Enhancing Internet
Performance over Wireless Links", [Xylomenos], the authors use ns-2
to simulate the performance of various link layer recovery schemes
(raw link without retransmission, go back N, XOR based FEC, selective
repeat, Karn's RLP, out of sequence RLP and Berkeley Snoop) in stand-
alone file transfer, web browsing and continuous media distribution.
While selective repeat and Karn's RLP provide the highest throughput
for file transfer and web browsing scenarios, continuous media
distribution requires a combination of low delay and low loss and the
out of sequence RLP performed best in this scenario. Since the
results indicate that no single link layer recovery scheme is optimal
for all applications, the authors propose that the link layer
implement multiple recovery schemes. Simulations of the multi-
service architecture showed that the combination of a low-error rate
recovery scheme for TCP (such as Karn's RLP) and a low-delay scheme
for UDP traffic (such as out of sequence RLP) provides for good
performance in all scenarios. The authors then describe how a multi-
service link layer can be integrated with Differentiated Services.
A.2 Internet Layer
Within the Internet layer, proposals have been made for utilizing
link indications to optimize IP configuration, to improve the
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usefulness of routing metrics, and to optimize aspects of Mobile IP
handoff.
In "Detection of Network Attachment (DNA) in IPv4" [DNAv4], link
indications are utilized to enable a host that has moved to a new
point of attachment to rapidly confirm a currently operable
configuration, rather than utilizing the DHCP protocol [RFC2131].
"A High-Throughput Path Metric for Multi-Hop Wireless Routing" [ETX]
describes how routing metrics can be improved by taking link layer
frame loss rates into account, enabling the selection of routes
maximizing available throughput. While the proposed routing metric
utilizes the Expected Transmission Count (ETX), it does not take the
negotiated rate into account, although this was noted as a subject
for further study.
In "L2 Triggers Optimized Mobile IPv6 Vertical Handover: The
802.11/GPRS Example" [Park] the authors propose that the mobile node
send a router solicitation on receipt of a "Link Up" indication in
order provide lower handoff latency than would be possible using
generic movement detection [RFC3775]. The authors also suggest
immediate invalidation of the Care-Of-Address (CoA) on receipt of a
"Link Down" indication. However, this is problematic where a "Link
Down" indication can be followed by a "Link Up" indication without a
resulting change in IP configuration, such as is described in
[DNAv4].
In "Layer 2 Handoff for Mobile-IPv4 with 802.11" [Mun], the authors
suggest that MIPv4 Registration messages be carried within
Information Elements of IEEE 802.11 Association/Reassociation frames,
in order to minimize handoff delays. This requires modification to
the mobile node as well as 802.11 APs. However, prior to detecting
network attachment, it is difficult for the mobile node to determine
whether the new point of attachment represents a change of network or
not. For example, even where a station remains within the same ESS,
it is possible that the network will change. Where no change of
network results, sending a MIPv4 Registration message with each
Association/Reassociation is unnecessary. Where a change of network
results, it is typically not possible for the mobile node to
anticipate its new CoA at Association/Reassociation; for example, a
DHCP server may assign a CoA not previously given to the mobile node.
When dynamic VLAN assignment is used, the VLAN assignment is not even
determined until IEEE 802.1X authentication has completed, which is
after Association/Reassociation in [IEEE-802.11i].
In "Link Characteristics Information for Mobile IP" [Lee], link
characteristics are included in registration/binding update messages
sent by the mobile node to the home agent and correspondent node.
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Where the mobile node is acting as a receiver, this allows the
correspondent node to adjust its transport parameters window more
rapidly than might otherwise be possible. Link characteristics that
may be communicated include the link type (e.g. 802.11b, CDMA, GPRS,
etc.) and link bandwidth. While the document suggests that the
correspondent node should adjust its sending rate based on the
advertised link bandwidth, this may not be wise in some
circumstances. For example, where the mobile node link is not the
bottleneck, adjusting the sending rate based on the link bandwidth
could cause in congestion. Also, where link rates change frequently,
sending registration messages on each rate change could by itself
consume significant bandwidth. Even where the advertised link
characteristics indicate the need for a smaller congestion window, it
may be non-trivial to adjust the sending rates of individual
connections where there are multiple connections open between a
mobile node and correspondent node. A more conservative approach
would be to trigger parameter re-estimation and slow start based on
the receipt of a registration message or binding update.
In "Hotspot Mitigation Protocol (HMP)" [HMP], it is noted that MANET
routing protocols have a tendency to concentrate traffic since they
utilize shortest path metrics and allow nodes to respond to route
queries with cached routes. The authors propose that nodes
participating in an adhoc wireless mesh monitor local conditions such
as MAC delay, buffer consumption and packets loss. Where congestion
is detected, this is communicated to neighboring nodes via an IP
option. In response to moderate congestion, nodes suppress route
requests; where major congestion is detected, nodes throttle TCP
connections flowing through them. The authors argue that for adhoc
networks throttling by intermediate nodes is more effective than end-
to-end congestion control mechanisms.
A.3 Transport Layer
Within the Transport layer, proposals have focused on countering the
effects of handoff-induced packet loss and non-congestive loss caused
by lossy wireless links.
Where a mobile host moves to a new network, the transport parameters
(including the RTT, RTO and congestion window) may no longer be
valid. Where the path change occurs on the sender (e.g. change in
outgoing or incoming interface), the sender can reset its congestion
window and parameter estimates. However, where it occurs on the
receiver, the sender may not be aware of the path change.
In "The BU-trigger method for improving TCP performance over Mobile
IPv6" [Kim], the authors note that handoff-related packet loss is
interpreted as congestion by the Transport layer. In the case where
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the correspondent node is sending to the mobile node, it is proposed
that receipt of a Binding Update by the correspondent node be used as
a signal to the Transport layer to adjust cwnd and ssthresh values,
which may have been reduced due to handoff-induced packet loss. The
authors recommend that cwnd and ssthresh be recovered to pre-timeout
values, regardless of whether the link parameters have changed. The
paper does not discuss the behavior of a mobile node sending a
Binding Update, in the case where the mobile node is sending to the
correspondent node.
In "Effect of Vertical Handovers on Performance of TCP-Friendly Rate
Control" [Gurtov], the authors examine the effect of explicit
handover notifications on TCP-friendly rate control. Where explicit
handover notification includes information on the loss rate and
throughput of the new link, this can be used to instantaneously
change the transmission rate of the sender. The authors also found
that resetting the TFRC receiver state after handover enabled
parameter estimates to adjust more quickly.
In "Lightweight Mobility Detection and Response (LMDR) Algorithm for
TCP" [Swami], the authors note that while MIPv6 with route
optimization allows a receiver to communicate a subnet change to the
sender via a Binding Update, this is not available within MIPv4. To
provide a communication vehicle that can be universally employed, the
authors propose a TCP option that allows a connection endpoint to
inform a peer of a subnet change. The document does not advocate
utilization of "Link Up" or "Link Down" events since these events are
not necessarily indicative of subnet change. On detection of subnet
change, it is advocated that the congestion window be reset to
INIT_WINDOW and that transport parameters be reestimated. The
authors argue that recovery from slow start results in higher
throughput both when the subnet change results in lower bottleneck
bandwidth as well as when bottleneck bandwidth increases.
In an early draft of [DCCP], a "Reset Congestion State" option was
proposed in Section 4. This option was removed in part because the
use conditions were not fully understood:
An Half-Connection Receiver sends the Reset Congestion State option
to its sender to force the sender to reset its congestion state --
that is, to "slow start", as if the connection were beginning again.
...
The Reset Congestion State option is reserved for the very few cases
when an endpoint knows that the congestion properties of a path have
changed. Currently, this reduces to mobility: a DCCP endpoint on a
mobile host MUST send Reset Congestion State to its peer after the
mobile host changes address or path.
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"Framework and Requirements for TRIGTRAN" [TRIGTRAN] discusses
optimizations to recover earlier from a retransmission timeout
incurred during a period in which an interface or intervening link
was down. "End-to-end, Implicit 'Link-Up' Notification" [E2ELinkup]
describes methods by which a TCP implementation that has backed off
its retransmission timer due to frame loss on a remote link can learn
that the link has once again become operational. This enables
retransmission to be attempted prior to expiration of the backed off
retransmission timer.
"Link-layer Triggers Protocol" [Yegin] describes transport issues
arising from lack of host awareness of link conditions on downstream
Access Points and routers. Transport of link layer triggers is
proposed to address the issue.
In "TCP Extensions for Immediate Retransmissions" [Eggert], it is
proposed that in addition to regularly scheduled retransmissions that
retransmission be attempted by the Transport layer on receipt of an
indication that connectivity to a peer node may have been restored.
End-to-end connectivity restoration indications include "Link Up",
confirmation of first-hop router reachability, confirmation of
Internet layer configuration, and receipt of other traffic from the
peer.
In "Discriminating Congestion Losses from Wireless Losses Using
Interarrival Times at the Receiver" [Biaz], the authors propose a
scheme for differentiating congestive losses from wireless
transmission losses based on interarrival times. Where the loss is
due to wireless transmission rather than congestion, congestive
backoff and cwnd adjustment is omitted. However, the scheme appears
to assume equal spacing between packets, which is not realistic in an
environment exhibiting link layer frame loss. The scheme is shown to
function well only when the wireless link is the bottleneck, which is
often the case with cellular networks, but not with IEEE 802.11
deployment scenarios such as home or hotspot use.
In "Improving Performance of TCP over Wireless Networks" [Bakshi],
the authors focus on the performance of TCP over wireless networks
with burst losses. The authors simulate performance of TCP Tahoe
within ns-2, utilizing a two-state Markov model, representing "good"
and "bad" states. Where the receiver is connected over a wireless
link, the authors simulate the effect of an Explicit Bad State
Notification (EBSN) sent by a base station unable to reach the
receiver. In response to an EBSN, it is advocated that the existing
retransmission timer be canceled and replaced by a new dynamically
estimated timeout, rather than being backed off. In the simulations,
EBSN prevents unnecessary timeouts, decreasing RTT variance and
improving throughput.
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In "A Feedback-Based Scheme for Improving TCP Performance in Ad-Hoc
Wireless Networks" [Chandran], the authors proposed an explicit Route
Failure Notification (RFN), allowing the sender to stop its
retransmission timers when the receiver becomes unreachable. On
route reestablishment, a Route Reestablishment Notification (RRN) is
sent, unfreezing the timer. Simulations indicate that the scheme
significantly improves throughput and reduces unnecessary
retransmissions.
In "Analysis of TCP Performance over Mobile Ad Hoc Networks"
[Holland], the authors explore how explicit link failure notification
(ELFN) can improve the performance of TCP in mobile ad hoc networks.
ELFN informs the TCP sender about link and route failures so that it
need not treat the ensuing packet loss as due to congestion. Using
an ns-2 simulation of TCP-Reno over 802.11 with routing provided by
the Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) protocol, it is demonstrated that
TCP performance falls considerably short of expected throughput based
on the percentage of the time that the network is partitioned. A
portion of the problem was attributed to the inability of the routing
protocol to quickly recognize and purge stale routes, leading to
excessive link failures; performance improved dramatically when route
caching was turned off. Interactions between the route request and
transport retransmission timers were also noted. Where the route
request timer is too large, new routes cannot be supplied in time to
prevent the transport timer from expiring, and where the route
request timer is too small, network congestion may result. For their
implementation of ELFN, the authors piggybacked additional
information on an existing "route failure" notice (sender and
receiver addresses and ports, the TCP sequence number) to enable the
sender to identify the affected connection. Where a TCP receives an
ELFN, it disables the retransmission timer and enters "stand-by"
mode, where packets are sent at periodic intervals to determine if
the route has been reestablished. If an acknowledgement is received
then the retransmission timers are restored. Simulations show that
performance is sensitive to the probe interval, with intervals of 30
seconds or greater giving worse performance than TCP-Reno. The
affect of resetting the congestion window and RTO values was also
investigated. In the study, resetting congestion window to one did
not have much of an effect on throughput, since the bandwidth/delay
of the network was only a few packets. However, resetting the RTO to
a high initial value (6 seconds) did have a substantial detrimental
effect, particularly at high speed. In terms of the probe packet
sent, the simulations showed little difference between sending the
first packet in the congestion window, or retransmitting the packet
with the lowest sequence number among those signalled as lost via the
ELFNs.
In "Improving TCP Performance over Wireless Links" [Goel], the
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authors propose use of an ICMP-DEFER message, sent by a wireless base
station on failure of a transmission attempt. After exhaustion of
retransmission attempts, an ICMP-RETRANSMIT message is sent. On
receipt of an ICMP-DEFER message, the expiry of the retransmission
timer is postponed by the current RTO estimate. On receipt of an
ICMP-RETRANSMIT message, the segment is retransmitted. On
retransmission, the congestion window is not reduced; when coming out
of fast recovery, the congestion window is reset to its value prior
to fast retransmission and fast recovery. Using a two-state Markov
model, simulated using ns-2, the authors show that the scheme
improves throughput.
In "Explicit Transport Error Notification (ETEN) for Error-Prone
Wireless and Satellite Networks" [Krishan], the authors examine the
use of explicit transport error notification (ETEN) to aid TCP in
distinguishing congestive losses from those due to corruption. Both
per-packet and cumulative ETEN mechanisms were simulated in ns-2,
using both TCP Reno and TCP SACK over a wide range of bit error rates
and traffic conditions. While per-packet ETEN mechanisms provided
substantial gains in TCP goodput without congestion, where congestion
was also present, the gains were not significant. Cumulative ETEN
mechanisms did not perform as well in the study. The authors point
out that ETEN faces significant deployment barriers since it can
create new security vulnerabilities and requires implementations to
obtain reliable information from the headers of corrupt packets.
A.4 Application Layer
At the Application layer, the usage of "Link Down" indications has
been proposed to augment presence systems. In such systems, client
devices periodically refresh their presence state using application
layer protocols such as SIMPLE [RFC3428] or XMPP [RFC3921]. If the
client should become disconnected, their unavailability will not be
detected until the presence status times out, which can take many
minutes. However, if a link goes down, and a disconnect indication
can be sent to the presence server (presumably by the access point,
which remains connected), the status of the user's communication
application can be updated nearly instantaneously.
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Appendix B - IAB Members at the time of this writing
Bernard Aboba
Loa Andersson
Leslie Daigle
Patrik Falstrom
Bob Hinden
Kurtis Lindqvist
David Meyer
Pekka Nikander
Eric Rescorla
Pete Resnick
Jonathan Rosenberg
Lixia Zhang
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Acknowledgment
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