One document matched: draft-ietf-aqm-ecn-benefits-03.txt
Differences from draft-ietf-aqm-ecn-benefits-02.txt
Network Working Group G. Fairhurst
Internet-Draft University of Aberdeen
Intended status: Informational M. Welzl
Expires: October 4, 2015 University of Oslo
April 02, 2015
The Benefits of using Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN)
draft-ietf-aqm-ecn-benefits-03
Abstract
This document describes the potential benefits when applications
enable Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN). It outlines the
principal gains in terms of increased throughput, reduced delay and
other benefits when ECN is used over network paths that include
equipment that supports ECN-marking. It also identifies some
potential problems that might occur when ECN is used. The document
does not propose new algorithms that may be able to use ECN or
describe the details of implementation of ECN in endpoint devices,
routers and other network devices.
Status of This Memo
This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the
provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79.
Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF). Note that other groups may also distribute
working documents as Internet-Drafts. The list of current Internet-
Drafts is at http://datatracker.ietf.org/drafts/current/.
Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months
and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any
time. It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference
material or to cite them other than as "work in progress."
This Internet-Draft will expire on October 4, 2015.
Copyright Notice
Copyright (c) 2015 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
document authors. All rights reserved.
This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal
Provisions Relating to IETF Documents
(http://trustee.ietf.org/license-info) in effect on the date of
publication of this document. Please review these documents
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carefully, as they describe your rights and restrictions with respect
to this document. Code Components extracted from this document must
include Simplified BSD License text as described in Section 4.e of
the Trust Legal Provisions and are provided without warranty as
described in the Simplified BSD License.
1. Introduction
Internet Transports (such as TCP and SCTP) have two ways to detect
congestion: the loss of a packet and, if Explicit Congestion
Notification (ECN) [RFC3168] is enabled, by reception of a packet
with a Congestion Experienced (CE)-marking in the IP header. Both of
these are treated by transports as indications of (potential)
congestion. ECN may also be enabled by other transports: UDP
applications that provide congestion control may enable ECN when they
are able to correctly process the ECN signals [RFC5405] (e.g., ECN
with RTP [RFC6679]).
Active Queue Management (AQM) is a class of techniques that can be
used by network devices to manage the size of queues that build in
network buffers. A network device (router, middlebox, or other
device that forwards packets through the network) that does not
support AQM, typically uses a drop-tail policy to drop excess IP
packets when its queue becomes full. The discard of packets serves
as a signal to the end-to-end transport that there may be congestion
on the network path being used. This triggers a congestion control
reaction to reduce the maximum rate permitted by the sending
endpoint.
When an application uses a transport that enables the use of ECN, the
transport layer sets the ECT(0) or ECT(1) codepoint in the IP header
of packets that it sends. This indicates to network devices that
they may mark, rather than drop, packets as the network queue builds.
This can allow a network device to signal at a point before a
transport experiences congestion loss or additional queuing delay.
The marking is generally performed as the result of various AQM
algorithms, where the exact combination of AQM/ECN algorithms does
not need to be known by the transport endpoints.
Since ECN makes it possible for the network to signal the presence of
incipient congestion (network queueing) without incurring packet
loss, it lets the network deliver some packets to an application that
would otherwise have been dropped if the application or transport did
not support ECN. This packet loss reduction is the most obvious
benefit of ECN, but it is often relatively modest. However, enabling
ECN can also result in a number of beneficial side-effects, some of
which may be much more significant than the immediate packet loss
reduction from ECN-marking instead of dropping packets. Several of
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these benefits have to do with reducing latency in some way (e.g.,
reduced Head-of-Line Blocking and potentially smaller queuing delay,
depending on the marking rules in network devices). The remainder of
this document discusses the potential for ECN to positively benefit
an application without making specific assumptions about
configuration or implementation.
[RFC3168] describes a method in which a network device sets the CE
codepoint of an ECN-Capable packet at the time that the router would
otherwise have dropped the packet. While it has often been assumed
that network devices should CE-mark packets at the same level of
congestion at which they would otherwise have dropped them, separate
configuration of the drop and mark thresholds is known to be
supported in some network devices and this is recommended
[RFC2309.bis]. Some benefits of ECN that are discussed rely upon
network devices marking packets at a lower level of congestion,
before they would otherwise drop packets from queue overflow [KH13].
The focus of this document is on usage of ECN by transport and
application layer flows, not its implementation in hosts, routers and
other network devices.
2. ECN Deployment
For an application to use ECN requires that the endpoint first
enables ECN within the transport.
The ability to use ECN requires network devices along the path to at
least forward IP packets with any ECN codepoint (i.e., packets with
ECT(0), ECT(1), or with a CE-mark). Network devices must not drop
packets solely because these codepoints are used [RFC2309.bis]. This
is further explained in (Section 2.2).
For an application to gain benefit from using a transport that
enables ECN, network devices need to enable ECN marking. However,
not all network devices along the path need to enable ECN. Any
network device that does not mark an ECN-enabled packet with a CE-
codepoint can be expected to drop packets under congestion.
Applications that experience congestion in these network devices do
not see any benefit from using ECN, but would see benefit if the
congestion were to occur within a network device that did support
ECN.
IETF-specified AQM algorithms need to be designed to work with
network paths that may experience multiple bottlenecks. Transports
can therefore experience dropped or CE-marked packets from more than
one network device related to the same network flow.
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ECN can be deployed both in the general Internet and in controlled
environments:
o ECN can be incrementally deployed in the general Internet. The
IETF has provided guidance on configuration and usage in
[RFC2309.bis]. A recent survey reported growing support for ECN
on common network paths [TR15].
o ECN may also be deployed within a controlled environment, for
example within a data centre or within a well-managed private
network. In this case, the use of ECN may be tuned to the
specific use-case. An example is Datacenter TCP (DCTCP) [AL10].
Some mechanisms that can assist in using ECN across paths that only
partially supports ECN are noted in Section 4. Applications and
transports (such as TCP or SCTP) can be designed to fall-back to not
using ECN when they discover they are using a path that does not
allow use of ECN (e.g., a firewall or other network device configured
to drop the ECN codepoint) Section 4.1.
2.1. Enabling ECN in Network Devices
The ECN behaviour of a network device should be configurable
[RFC2309.bis]. An AQM algorithm that supports ECN needs to define
the threshold and algorithm for ECN-marking.
Network deployment needs also to consider the requirements for
processing ECN at tunnel endpoints of network tunnels, and guidance
on the treatment of ECN is provided in [RFC6040]. Further guidance
on the encapsulation and use of ECN by non-IP network devices is
provided in [ID.ECN-Encap].
2.2. Bleaching and Middlebox Requirements to deploy ECN
Cases have been noted where a sending endpoint marks a packet with a
non-zero ECN mark, but the packet is received with a zero ECN value
by the remote endpoint.
The current IPv4 and IPv6 specifications assign usage of 2 bits in
the IP header to carry the ECN codepoint. This 2-bit field was
reserved in [RFC2474] and assigned in [RFC3168]. A previous usage
assigned these bits as a part of the now deprecated Type of Service
(ToS) field [RFC1349]. Network devices that conform to this older
specification may still remark or erase the ECN codepoints, and such
equipment needs to be updated to the current specifications to
support ECN. This remarking has also been called "ECN bleaching".
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Some networks have been observed to implement a policy that erases or
"bleaches" the ECN marks at a network edge (resetting these to zero).
This may be implemented for various reasons (including normalising
packets to hide which equipment supports ECN). This policy prevents
use of ECN by applications. A network device should therefore not
remark an ECT(0) or ECT(1) mark to zero [RFC2309.bis]. A network
device must also not set the CE-mark in a packet except to signal
incipient congestion, since this will be interpreted as incipient
congestion by the transport endpoints.
A network device must not change a packet with a CE mark to a zero
codepoint (if the CE marking is not propagated, the packet must be
discarded) [RFC2309.bis]. Such a packet has already received ECN
treatment in the network, and remarking it would then hide the
congestion signal from the endpoints.
Some networks may use ECN internally or tunnel ECN for traffic
engineering or security. Guidance on the correct use of ECN in this
case is provided in [RFC6040].
3. Benefit of using ECN to avoid Congestion loss
When a non-ECN capable packet would be discarded as a result of
incipient congestion, an ECN-enabled router may be expected to CE-
mark, rather than drop an ECN-enabled packet [RFC2309.bis]. An
application can benefit from this marking in several ways:
3.1. Improved Throughput
ECN can improve the throughput of an application, although this
increase in throughput offered by ECN is often not the most
significant gain.
When an application uses a light to moderately loaded network path,
the number of packets that are dropped due to congestion is small.
Using an example from Table 1 of [RFC3649], for a standard TCP sender
with a Round Trip Time, RTT, of 0.1 seconds, a packet size of 1500
bytes and an average throughput of 1 Mbps, the average packet drop
ratio is 0.02. This translates into an approximate 2% throughput
gain if ECN is enabled. In heavy congestion, packet loss may be
unavoidable with, or without, ECN.
3.2. Reduced Head-of-Line Blocking
Many transports provide in-order delivery of received data segments
to the applications they support. This requires that the transport
stalls (or waits) for all data that was sent ahead of a particular
segment to be correctly received before it can forward any later
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data. This is the usual requirement for TCP and SCTP. PR-SCTP
[RFC3758], UDP [RFC0768][RFC5405], and DCCP [RFC4340] provide a
transport that does not have this requirement.
Delaying data to provide in-order transmission to an application
results in additional latency when segments are dropped as
indications of congestion. The congestive loss creates a delay of at
least one RTT for a loss event before data can be delivered to an
application. We call this Head-of-Line (HOL) blocking.
In contrast, using ECN can remove the resulting delay following a
loss that was a result of congestion:
o First, the application receives the data normally. This also
avoids the inefficiency of dropping data that has already made it
across at least part of the network path. It also avoids the
additional delay of waiting for recovery of the lost segment.
o Second, the transport receiver notes that it has received CE-
marked packets, and then requests the sender to make an
appropriate congestion-response to reduce the maximum transmission
rate for future traffic.
3.3. Reduced Probability of RTO Expiry
In some situations, ECN can help reduce the probability of a
transport retransmission timer expiring (e.g., expiry of the TCP or
SCTP retransmission timeout, RTO [RFC5681]). When an application
sends a burst of segments and then becomes idle (either because the
application has no further data to send or the network prevents
sending further data - e.g., flow or congestion control at the
transport layer), the last segment of the burst may be lost. It is
often not possible to recover this last segment (or last few
segments) using standard methods such as Fast Recovery [RFC5681],
since the receiver generates no feedback because it is unaware that
the lost segments were actually sent [Fla13].
In addition to avoiding HOL blocking, this allows the transport to
avoid the consequent loss of state about the network path it is
using, which would have arisen had there been a retransmission
timeout. Typical impacts of a transport timeout are to reset path
estimates such as the RTT, the congestion window, and possibly other
transport state that can reduce the performance of the transport
until it again adapts to the path.
Avoiding timeouts can hence improve the throughput of the
application. This benefits applications that send intermittent
bursts of data, and rely upon timer-based recovery of packet loss.
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It can be especially significant when ECN is used on TCP SYN/ACK
packets [RFC5562] where the RTO interval may be large because in this
case TCP cannot base the timeout period on prior RTT measurements
from the same connection.
3.4. Applications that do not Retransmit Lost Packets
Some latency-critical applications do not retransmit lost packets,
yet they may be able to adjust the sending rate in the presence of
incipient congestion. Examples of such applications include UDP-
based services that carry Voice over IP (VoIP), interactive video or
real-time data. The performance of many such applications degrades
rapidly with increasing packet loss, and many therefore employ loss-
hiding mechanisms (e.g., packet forward error correction, or data
duplication) to mitigate the effect of congestion loss on the
application. However, such mechanisms add complexity and can
themselves consume additional network capacity reducing the available
capacity for application data and contributing to the path latency
when congestion is experienced.
By decoupling congestion control from loss, ECN can allow the
transports supporting these applications to reduce their rate before
the application experiences loss from congestion. Because this
reduces the negative impact of using loss-hiding mechanisms, ECN can
have a direct positive impact on the quality experienced by the users
of these applications.
3.5. Making Incipient Congestion Visible
A characteristic of using ECN is that it exposes the presence of
congestion on a network path to the transport and network layers.
This information can be used for monitoring performance of the path,
and could be used to directly meter the amount of congestion that has
been encountered upstream on a path; metering packet loss is harder.
ECN measurements are used by Congestion Exposure (ConEx) [RFC6789].
A network flow that only experiences CE-marks and no loss implies
that the sending endpoint is experiencing only congestion and not
other sources of packet loss (e.g., link corruption or loss in
middleboxes). The converse is not true - a flow may experience a
mixture of ECN-marks and loss when there is only congestion or when
there is a combination of packet loss and congestion [RFC2309.bis].
Recording the presence of CE-marked packets can therefore provide
information about the performance of the network path.
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3.6. Opportunities for new Transport Mechanisms
CE-marked packets carry an indication that network queues are
filling, without incurring loss. This has the possibility to provide
richer feedback (more frequent and fine-grained indications) to
transports. This may utilise new thresholds and algorithms for ECN-
marking. Supporting ECN therefore provides a mechanism that can
benefit evolution of transport protocols.
3.6.1. Other forms of ECN-Marking/Reactions
ECN requires a definition of both how network devices CE-mark packets
and how applications/transports need to react to reception of these
CE-marked packets. ECN-capable receiving endpoints need to provide
feedback indicating that CE-marks were received. An endpoint may
provide more detailed feedback describing the set of received ECN
codepoints using Accurate ECN Feedback [ID.Acc.ECN]. This can
provide more information to a sending endpoint's congestion control
mechanism.
Precise feedback about the number of packet marks encountered is
supported by the Real Time Protocol (RTP) when used over UDP
[RFC6679] and proposed for SCTP [ST14] and TCP [ID.Acc.ECN].
Benefit has been noted when packets are CE-marked earlier using an
instantaneous queue, and if the receiver provides precise feedback
about the number of packet marks encountered, a better sender
behavior has been shown to be possible (e.g, Datacenter TCP (DCTCP)
[AL10]). DCTCP is targeted at confined environments such as a
datacenter. It is currently unknown whether or how such behaviour
could be safely introduced into the Internet.
4. ECN Transport Mechanisms for Paths with Partial ECN support
Early deployment of ECN encountered a number of operational
difficulties when the network only partially supports the use of ECN,
or to respond to the challenges due to misbehaving network devices
and/or endpoints. These problems have been observed to diminish with
time, but may still be encountered on some Internet paths [TR15].
This section describes transport mechanisms that allow ECN-enabled
endpoints to continue to work effectively over a path with partial
ECN support.
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4.1. Verifying whether a Path Really Supports ECN
ECN transport and applications need to implement mechanisms to verify
ECN support on the path that they use and fall back to not using ECN
when it would not work. This is expected to be a normal feature of
IETF-defined transports supporting ECN.
Before a transport relies on the presence or absence of CE-marked
packets, it may need to verify that any ECN marks applied to packets
passed by the path are indeed delivered to the remote endpoint. This
may be achieved by the sender setting known ECN codepoints into
specific packets in a network flow and then verifying that these
reach the remote endpoint [ID.Fallback], [TR15].
Endpoints also need to be robust to path changes. A change in the
set of network devices along a path may impact the ability to
effectively signal or use ECN across the path, e.g., when a path
changes to use a middlebox that bleaches ECN codepoints. As a
necessary, but short term fix, transports could implement mechanisms
that detect this and fall-back to disabling use of ECN [BA11].
4.2. Detecting ECN Receiver Feedback Cheating
It is important that receiving endpoints accurately report the loss
they experience when using a transport that uses loss-based
congestion control. So also, when using ECN, a receiver must
correctly report the congestion marking that it receives and then
provide a mechanism to feed the congestion information back to the
sending endpoint.
The transport at endpoint receivers must not try to conceal reception
of CE-marked packets in the ECN feedback information that they
provide to the sending endpoint [RFC2309.bis]. Transport protocols
are actively encouraged to include mechanisms that can detect and
appropriately respond to such misbehavior (e.g., disabling use of
ECN, and relying on loss-based congestion detection [TR15]).
5. Conclusion
This section summarises the benefits of deploying and using AQM
within the Internet. It also provides a list of key requirements to
achieve ECN deployment.
Network devices should enable ECN and people configuring host stacks
should also enable ECN [RFC2309.bis]. Specifically network devices
must not change a packet with a CE mark to a zero codepoint (if the
CE marking is not propagated, the packet must be discarded). These
are prerequisites to allow applications to gain the benefits of ECN.
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Prerequisites for network devices (including IP routers) to enable
use of ECN include:
o should not reset the ECN codepoint to zero by default (see
Section 2.2).
o should correctly update the ECN codepoint in the presence of
congestion [RFC2309.bis].
o should correctly support alternate ECN semantics [RFC4774].
Prerequisites for network endpoints to enable use of ECN include:
o should use transports that can set and receive ECN marks.
o when ECN is used, must correctly return feedback of congestion to
the sending endpoint.
o when ECN is used, must use transports that react appropriately to
received ECN feedback (see Section 4.2).
o when ECN is used, should use transports that can detect misuse of
ECN and detect paths that do not support ECN, providing fallback
to loss-based congestion detection when ECN is not supported (see
Section 4.1).
Application developers should where possible use transports that
enable the benefits of ECN. Applications that directly use UDP need
to provide support to implement the functions required for ECN
[RFC5405]. Once enabled, an application that uses a transport that
supports ECN will experience the benefits of ECN as network
deployment starts to enable ECN. The application does not need to be
rewritten to gain these benefits. Table 1 summarises some of these
benefits.
+---------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| Section | Benefit |
+---------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| 3.1 | Improved throughput |
| 3.2 | Reduced Head-of-Line blocking |
| 3.3 | Reduced probability of RTO Expiry |
| 3.4 | Applications that do not retransmit lost packets |
| 3.5 | Making incipient congestion visible |
| 3.6 | Opportunities for new transport mechanisms |
+---------+-----------------------------------------------------+
Table 1: Summary of Key Benefits
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6. Acknowledgements
The authors were part-funded by the European Community under its
Seventh Framework Programme through the Reducing Internet Transport
Latency (RITE) project (ICT-317700). The views expressed are solely
those of the authors.
The authors would like to thank the following people for their
comments on prior versions of this document: Bob Briscoe, David
Collier-Brown, John Leslie, Colin Perkins, Richard Scheffenegger,
Dave Taht, Wes Eddy, Fred Baker and other members of the TSVWG.
7. IANA Considerations
XX RFC ED - PLEASE REMOVE THIS SECTION XXX
This memo includes no request to IANA.
8. Security Considerations
This document introduces no new security considerations. Each RFC
listed in this document discusses the security considerations of the
specification it contains.
9. Revision Information
XXX RFC-Ed please remove this section prior to publication.
Revision 00 was the first WG draft.
Revision 01 includes updates to complete all the sections and a
rewrite to improve readability. Added section 2. Author list
reversed, since Gorry has become the lead author. Corrections
following feedback from Wes Eddy upon review of an interim version of
this draft.
Note: Wes Eddy raised a question about whether discussion of the ECN
Pitfalls could be improved or restructured - this is expected to be
addressed in the next revision.
Revision 02 updates the title, and also the description of mechanisms
that help with partial ECN support.
We think this draft is ready for wider review. Comments are welcome
to the authors or via the IETF AQM or TSVWG mailing lists.
Revision 03 includes updates from the mailing list and WG discussions
at the Dallas IETF meeting.
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The section "Avoiding Capacity Overshoot" was removed, since this
refers primarily to an AQM benefit, and the additional benefits of
ECN are already stated. Separated normative and infoirmative
referebc
XX Note: The reference to AQM Eval Requirements relises on addition
of material to this document to define multiple bottleneck
requirements
10. References
10.1. Normative References
[RFC2309.bis]
Baker, F. and G. Fairhurst, "IETF Recommendations
Regarding Active Queue Management", Internet-draft draft-
ietf-aqm-recommendation-06, October 2014.
[RFC2474] "Definition of the Differentiated Services Field (DS
Field) in the IPv4 and IPv6 Headers".
[RFC3168] Ramakrishnan, K., Floyd, S., and D. Black, "The Addition
of Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) to IP", RFC
3168, September 2001.
[RFC5405] .
[RFC6040] Briscoe, B., "Tunnelling of Explicit Congestion
Notification", RFC 6040, November 2010.
10.2. Informative References
[AL10] Alizadeh, M., Greenberg, A., Maltz, D., Padhye, J., Patel,
P., Prabhakar, B., Sengupta, S., and M. Sridharan, "Data
Center TCP (DCTCP)", SIGCOMM 2010, August 2010.
[BA11] Bauer, Steven., Beverly, Robert., and Arthur. Berger,
"Measuring the State of ECN Readiness in Servers, Clients,
and Routers, ACM IMC", 2011.
[Fla13] Flach, Tobias., Dukkipati, Nandita., Terzis, Andreas.,
Raghavan, Barath., Cardwell, Neal., Cheng, Yuchung., Jain,
Ankur., Hao, Shuai., Katz-Bassett, Ethan., and Ramesh.
Govindan, "Reducing web latency: the virtue of gentle
aggression.", SIGCOMM 2013, October 2013.
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[ID.AQM.Eval]
Kuhn, Nicolas., Natarajan, Preethi., Khademi, Naeem., and
David. Ros, "AQM Characterization Guidelines, Work-in-
Progress".
[ID.Acc.ECN]
Briscoe, Bob., Scheffeneger, Richard., and Mirja.
Kuehlewind, "More Accurate ECN Feedback in TCP, Work-in-
Progress".
[ID.ECN-Encap]
Briscoe, B., Kaippallimalil, J., and P. Thaler,
"Guidelines for Adding Congestion Notification to
Protocols that Encapsulate IP", Internet-draft, IETF work-
in-progress draft-ietf-tsvwg-ecn-encap-guidelines.
[ID.Fallback]
Kuehlewind, Mirja. and Brian. Trammell, "A Mechanism for
ECN Path Probing and Fallback, draft-kuehlewind-tcpm-ecn-
fallback, Work-in-Progress".
[KH13] Khademi, N., Ros, D., and M. Welzl, "The New AQM Kids on
the Block: Much Ado About Nothing?", University of Oslo
Department of Informatics technical report 434, October
2013.
[RFC0768] Postel, J., "User Datagram Protocol", 1980.
[RFC1349] "Type of Service in the Internet Protocol Suite".
[RFC3649] Floyd, S., "HighSpeed TCP for Large Congestion Windows",
RFC 3649, December 2003.
[RFC3758] Stewart, R., Ramalho, M., Xie, Q., Tuexen, M., and P.
Conrad, "Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
Partial Reliability Extension", RFC 3758, May 2004.
[RFC4340] Kohler, E., Handley, M., and S. Floyd, "Datagram
Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP)", RFC 4340, March 2006.
[RFC4774] Floyd, S., "Specifying Alternate Semantics for the
Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) Field", BCP 124,
RFC 4774, November 2006.
[RFC5562] Kuzmanovic, A., Mondal, A., Floyd, S., and K.
Ramakrishnan, "Adding Explicit Congestion Notification
(ECN) Capability to TCP's SYN/ACK Packets", RFC 5562, June
2009.
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[RFC5681] Allman, M., Paxson, V., and E. Blanton, "TCP Congestion
Control", RFC 5681, September 2009.
[RFC6679] Westerlund, M., Johansson, I., Perkins, C., O'Hanlon, P.,
and K. Carlberg, "Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN)
for RTP over UDP", RFC 6679, August 2012.
[RFC6789] Briscoe, B., Woundy, R., and A. Cooper, "Congestion
Exposure (ConEx) Concepts and Use Cases", RFC 6789,
December 2012.
[ST14] Stewart, R., Tuexen, M., and X. Dong, "ECN for Stream
Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)", Internet-draft
draft-stewart-tsvwg-sctpecn-05.txt, January 2014.
[TR15] Tranmmel, Brian., Kuehlewind, Mirja., Boppart, Damiano,
Learmonth, Iain., and Gorry. Fairhurst, "Enabling
internet-wide deployment of Explicit Congestion
Notification Tramwell, B., Kuehlewind, M., Boppart, D.,
Learmonth, I., Fairhurst, G. & Scheffnegger, Passive and
Active Measurement Conference (PAM)", March 2015.
Authors' Addresses
Godred Fairhurst
University of Aberdeen
School of Engineering, Fraser Noble Building
Aberdeen AB24 3UE
UK
Email: gorry@erg.abdn.ac.uk
Michael Welzl
University of Oslo
PO Box 1080 Blindern
Oslo N-0316
Norway
Phone: +47 22 85 24 20
Email: michawe@ifi.uio.no
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